4.1: Introduction to English Grammar and Mechanics

4.1.1: Components of a Sentence

Learning Objective

Recognize a complete sentence by identifying its subject and predicate

Key Points

• Within a sentence, the subject is the noun (or pronoun) that performs the action.
• Within a sentence, the predicate is the verb or verb phrase that tells what action is being performed by the subject.
• Within a sentence, the direct object is the person or object upon which the subject is acting.
• Within a sentence, the indirect object answers the question “to whom/what?” or “for whom/what?”
• A modifier gives more information about a sentence element.
• A phrase is a group of words that does not contain both a subject and a verb.
• Sentences are made up of clauses. A clause contains at least a subject and a finite verb.

Key Terms

complement

A word, phrase, or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a given expression.

phrase

A group of words that cannot stand on its own because it does not have both a subject and a verb.

fragment

An incomplete sentence, lacking a subject or a predicate.

subject

In a clause, the word or word group (usually a noun phrase) that represents a person, place or thing. In active clauses with verbs denoting an action, the subject and the actor are usually the same.

predicate

The part of the sentence (or clause) that states something about the subject or the object of the sentence.

sentence fragment

An incomplete sentence; a phrase or clause that is punctuated and capitalized as a sentence but does not constitute a complete grammatical sentence. It is usually caused either by the failure to include a subject and a verb in a sentence or by beginning a sentence with a subordinate conjunction or relative pronoun.

simple predicate

The verb or verb phrase of a sentence.

object

The noun or pronoun which is being acted upon, or at which the action is directed. There are two types: direct and indirect.

modifier

A word, phrase, or clause that limits or qualifies the sense of another word or phrase.

clause

Typically contains at least a subject noun phrase and a finite verb. The two main categories are independent and subordinate (or dependent).

Complete Sentences

In order to successfully craft
sentences, one must first understand the core elements of complete English sentences: subjects,
objects, predicates, and modifiers. The most important of these are subjects and predicates: in order for a sentence to be “complete,” it must contain an action and someone (or something) doing it. The action is the predicate, and the person (or thing) doing it is the subject.

An incomplete sentence is called a fragment. Compare and contrast the sentences below:

1. I like pizza. Because it tastes delicious.
2. I like pizza because it tastes delicious.

Of the two examples above, the first contains a fragment: “Because it tastes delicious” is a fragment, or an incomplete thought. It has an “action” (tasting delicious) but no subject. 

The second example is correct; it has all the necessary components of a full sentence—a subject and a predicate.

It is important to understand that there are
many gray areas of definition and usage when it comes to English-language
sentence construction.
For the purposes of understanding, we will start with basic ideas and simple examples. When you have a strong grasp of these, you will feel more able to handle the gray areas.

Subjects

The subject of a sentence is a noun or
pronoun (and its article, if it has one). In active-voice sentences, it is the noun or pronoun performing the
action in the sentence. See
the italicized subjects in the examples below:

1. The boy crossed the street.

2. She works in the city.
3. Mark is a good athlete.

In example 1, the subject, “the boy,” is both a noun and its article. In example 2, the subject is a pronoun. In example 3, the subject is a noun (no article).

Predicates

The predicate explains the action of the sentence. The simple predicate refers to just the verb or verb phrase, linked to the subject, which tells what action is being
performed by that subject. In the examples above, “crossed,” “works,” and “is”
are all simple predicates.

There are more complex definitions of “predicate.” Sometimes “predicate” can simply mean “everything except the subject.” But just remember: the simple predicate is the action (verb or verb phrase) of a sentence.

In the examples below, the predicates
are italicized:

• The house is green. 

• She seems angry.

• The burden became excessive.

Objects

The object of a sentence is the noun or
pronoun which is being acted upon, or at which the action is directed. There
are two types of objects: direct objects and indirect objects. 

Direct Object

The direct object is the object which
is being acted upon in the sentence. See the italicized direct objects in the
examples below:

• Johnny
  throws the ball.

• Jill
  cuts the cake.

• Bill
  rides the bike. 

Indirect
Object

The
indirect object answers the questions “to whom/what?”or “for whom/what?” in a
sentence. It is not acted upon. See the
italicized indirect objects in the examples below:

• Johnny
  throws the ball to me.

• Jill
  cuts the cake for her friends.

• Bill
  rides the bike to school.

No Object

Some sentences do not need an object and consist of only a
subject and a verb predicate. For example:

• Mary smiled.
• Fred sneezed.

This can happen because some verbs (like the ones above) don’t require an object. When a verb doesn’t need an object, it is called an intransitive verb. (We’ll talk more about this later.)

Modifiers

A modifier is a phrase in a sentence
that provides additional information about an element within that sentence.
There are three basic kinds of modifying constructions:

• Single-word modifiers (adjectives and
  adverbs): It was a nice house.
• Modifying phrases (e.g., prepositional,
  participial, infinitive, and appositive phrases): Barry
  Goldwater, the junior senator from
  Arizona, received the Republican nomination in 1964. (appositive phrase)

• Modifying clauses (a clause is any
  group of words with its own subject and predicate): The only one of the seven dwarfs who does not have a beard is Dopey. (adjective clause)

Compound Elements

In a given sentence, there may be more than
one of any of the four core sentence elements. Compound elements can include:

• Compound subject: Mary and Tom went to
  the dance.

• Compound predicate: He ran to the house
  and knocked on the door.

• Compound modifier: He rode a small white pony.

Phrases

A phrase is a collection of words that may have nouns or verbals, but it does not have a subject doing a verb. The following are examples of phrases:

• leaving behind the dog
• smashing into a fence
• before the first test
• after the devastation
• between ignorance and intelligence
• broken into thousands of pieces
• because of her glittering smile

In these examples, you will find nouns (dog, fence, test, devastation, ignorance, intelligence, thousands, pieces). You also have some verbals (leaving, smashing), but in no case is the noun functioning as a subject doing a predicate verb. They are all phrases.

Clauses

A clause is a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb. The following are examples of clauses:

• since she laughs at men
• I despise individuals of low character
• when the saints go marching in
• because she smiled at him

Note that in the examples above, we find either a noun or a pronoun that is a subject (italicized) attached to a verb phrase (also italicized).

Independent and Dependent Clauses

If the clause could stand by itself—that is, form a complete sentence with punctuation—we call it an independent clause. The following are independent clauses:

• I despise individuals of low character
• Helen loves Canadian geese

We could easily turn independent clauses into complete sentences by adding appropriate punctuation marks. We might say, “I despise individuals of low character.” Or we might write, “Helen loves Canadian geese!” We call them independent because these types of clauses can stand by themselves, without any extra words attached, and be complete sentences.

By contrast, dependent (also called subordinating) clauses cannot stand on their own. The following are dependent clauses:

• when the saints go marching in
• because she smiled at him

Sentence diagram 1

This diagram shows some of the component parts of a sentence, and demonstrates how they relate to each other.

4.1.2: Structure of a Sentence

Learning Objective

Classify sentences based on sentence structure and purpose

Key Points

• To create a strong sentence, begin with a specific subject and a strong verb.
• Sentences can be classified by their structure or by their purpose.
• Structural classifications for sentences include: simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.
• Particular connectors are used to impart particular meanings in compound and complex sentences.
• Classification categories for sentences by purpose include declarations, interrogatives, exclamations, and imperatives.
• In the revision stage of writing, it’s useful to go over the paper with an eye toward the appropriateness and variety of sentence construction.

Key Terms

imperative sentence

A statement that tells the reader, in the form of a request, suggestion, or demand, to do something.

exclamatory sentence

An emphatic form of statement that expresses emotion.

declarative sentence

A statement or declaration about something.

compound-complex sentence

Multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one subordinate clause.

complex sentence

At least one independent clause and one subordinate clause.

simple sentences

A single independent clause with no subordinate clauses.

compound sentence

Multiple independent clauses with no subordinate clauses.

interrogative sentence

Also called a question, it is commonly used to request information.

Like an architect can create walls, bridges, arches, and roads with the same bricks, you can create sentences that serve varying functions using the building blocks of words. Just as an architect plans different features in an edifice to create a strong and beautiful building, a writer must use a variety of sentence structures to capture readers’ interest. And like a builder must begin with a solid foundation, your sentences need to begin with clear, strong words. The more practice you have putting sentences together, the more interesting your writing will become.

First, let’s work on clarity through specificity. “Le bon mot,” or “the right word,” is key, and it begins with nouns and verbs.

Subjects and Verbs

Despite contrary trends in the popular press, formal writing still requires of a sentence both a subject and a verb. Getting those two things right will put you well on the way to writing well.

• Jesus wept.
• The schooner capsized.
• She died.
• They won.
• Paris seduces.
• It is.
• These are all sentences.  

You already know that you need a subject and a verb to create a sentence. What you may not know is that these are the two most important parts of a sentence to get right. The more specific the noun, the more your reader will be able to picture what it is you’re talking about (“schooner” is more specific than “boat,” “Paris” more specific than “France”). Pronouns work well when the antecedent is clear. While repeating a noun can get ponderous, unidentifiable pronouns confuse the reader.

Verbs, too, captivate when they’re exact. Adjectives and adverbs, it’s said, were invented for those who don’t know enough verbs. Take the sentence “Paris seduces,” for example. You could just as easily say, “Paris is seductive,” but the use of the verb “to be” makes the sentence less active and alive.

From this solid base, you can begin adding your objects and clauses to create more complex sentences.

Classifying Sentences by Structure

Sentences can be classified by their structure or by their purpose. You’ll want to keep both in mind as you write.

Structural classifications for sentences include simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences.

You’ll want to have a mix of sentence types in almost anything you write, as varying length and complexity keeps the reader’s attention. The sing-song nature of same-length sentences seems to trigger a lullaby response in our brains, and our eyes can’t help but droop. In addition to the rhythm of it, though, you’ll communicate more substance with varying sentence lengths.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no subordinate clauses. For example:

• I love chocolate cake with rainbow sprinkles.
• “Without love, life would be empty.” This sentence contains a subject (life), a verb (would be) and two types of modifiers (without love and empty).

Simple sentences are often used to introduce a topic or present a new thought in an argument—for example, “Juries are charged with rendering impartial verdicts,” or “Income taxes are high in Scandinavian countries.” You may notice that with both these examples, the reader is likely to start formulating objections or opinions about the topic right away. As a writer, you can use simple sentences in this way. Writing a simple sentence to begin a paragraph can have the reader making your argument for you before you’ve even begun to state your point. 

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no subordinate clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both. For example:

• I love chocolate cake with rainbow sprinkles, and I eat it all the time for breakfast.
• Together we stand; united we fall.

You can feel the power of that second example. Using a semicolon without a conjunction adds drama to a compound sentence, especially when you’re comparing two concepts and the independent clauses are of approximately equal length.

Compound sentences connected with “and” make connections between ideas. The sentence, “It’s clear that we do have the means to end poverty worldwide, and every moment we hesitate means one more child dies of hunger,” exposes the connection between having the means to end poverty and the consequences of not employing those means.  

Using “but” takes exception with the first clause: “Eileen treats her boyfriend like a servant, but he isn’t going to stand for that for long.”

You can use a semicolon to show a relationship between clauses: “Bats are nocturnal; they are active only at night.”

“However,” “nonetheless,” and “still” are often used as qualifiers between independent clauses. For example, “There were no luxuries like pillows in the convent; however, some residents did find ways to create comfort.”

You can show causation using “therefore” and “thus,”—for example, “The countries that are least committed to reducing fossil fuel use are the largest; therefore, we are unlikely to stave the crisis.

You can show emphasis using connectors like, “moreover,” and “furthermore.” “Hilda has not done her chores in a week; moreover, she has been eating twice her share at dinner.”

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one subordinate clause. For example:

• “While I love him dearly, I will get rid of my pterodactyl for the sake of the community.”
• “Those who eat chocolate cake will be happy.” In this case, the subordinate clause, “who eat chocolate cake” is in the middle of the sentence.
• “If-then” sentences are complex sentences: “If Americans don’t change their dietary habits, the medical system will soon be bankrupt.” (Notice that the “then” is implied.)

Other connectors for complex sentences include “because,” “although,” “so that,” “since.” 

• “I have had strong convictions since I was old enough to reason.”

Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence (or complex-compound sentence) consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one subordinate clause. For example:

• “I love my pet pterodactyl, but since he’s been eating neighborhood cats, I will donate him to the city zoo.” Here, the subordinate clause is, “since he’s been eating neighborhood cats.”
• “Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are.” This sentence contains two independent clauses (one before and one after the comma), and each independent clause contains a subordinate clause (“what you eat” and “what you are”).

There are countless variations of compound-complex sentences, and while they can be complicated, they are often necessary in order to make complete connections between ideas. Don’t make the mistake, though, of using them unnecessarily. Break thoughts into new sentences when you can. When you do use one, try to insert a simple sentence after it. Your reader may need a rest.

Selecting Sentence Construction

• North Americans eat a lot of fast food. They also have a high rate of disease.
• North Americans eat a lot of fast food, and they have a high rate of disease.
• If North Americans continue to eat a lot of fast food, they will continue to have a high rate of disease.
• If North Americans, who eat a lot of fast food, continue to do so, they will likely continue to have a high rate of disease, as proper nutrition is vital to immune function.

In looking at the various sentence forms above, you can see that each sentence gives you a different feel. Can you see how each might be appropriate in different contexts? The simple sentences might work in an introduction to begin to draw the parallel. The compound sentence makes the connection clear. The complex sentence sounds more like a lesson in its “if-then” format, and the compound-complex sentence packs all the information into one conclusive sentence. Which of these sounds most convincing as an argument? Which allows you to draw your own conclusion?  

Classifying Sentences by Purpose

English sentences can also be classified based on their purpose: declarations, interrogatives, exclamations, and imperatives. When you’re composing a paper, you’ll want to clarify the purpose of your sentences to be sure you’re selecting the appropriate form.

Declarations

A declarative sentence, or declaration, is the most common type of sentence. It makes a statement. For example:

• “Most Americans must work to survive.”
• “I love watching the parrots migrate.”

Because you’ll be relying on statements most of the time, you’ll want to vary the structure of your declarative sentences, using the forms above, to be sure your paragraphs don’t feel plodding. One declaration after the next can lull the reader into complacency (or, worse, sleep).

Interrogatives

An interrogative sentence, or question, is commonly used to request information. For example:

• “Do you know what it’s like to have to go to work to be able to eat?”
• “Why has the sky suddenly turned green?”

While you don’t want to overuse the interrogative in an essay, it does serve to wake the reader up a bit. You’re asking the reader to find the answer within him- or herself, rather than simply digesting fact after fact. Helping the reader formulate questions about the topic early can engage readers by accessing their curiosity. 

Exclamations

An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is a more emphatic form of statement that expresses emotion. For example:

• I have to go to work!
• Get away from me!

“Show some restraint!” is the general guideline for using exclamations in a paper. And yet, there are times when it won’t seem amateurish or overly hard-hitting. When you’re exposing a contradiction in your opposition’s views, for example, or an inconsistency between views and behaviors, you can signal the importance of this diversion with an exclamation. Recognize, though, that using exclamations only sparingly will bolster your credibility. Like the boy who cried wolf, if you get a reputation for yelling all the time, people will begin to ignore you, even when it really matters.

Imperatives

An imperative sentence tells someone to do something (and may be considered both imperative and exclamatory). This may be in the form of a request, a suggestion, or a demand, and the intended audience is the reader.

• Go to work.
• Trust me!

Imperatives can be effective in making an argument. You can introduce evidence with an imperative (e.g., “Consider the current immigrant crisis in Europe”). You can use an imperative to transition from a counter-argument: “Don’t be fooled by this faulty logic.” You might include an imperative in your conclusion, if you’re including a call to action: “Act now to end human trafficking.” 

Checking for Appropriate Sentence Structure and Purpose

In the revision stage of writing, make sure to make a pass over the paper with an eye toward sentence construction. Are there too many interrogatives or exclamations? Does the prose sound convoluted because I use too many compound-complex sentences? Do I sound condescending because I’m using too many simple sentences? Do the connectors I’m using fit with this particular sentence?

Enjoy constructing your argument using the forms sentences can take. Designing a paper using your skill with sentence structure can feel thoroughly satisfying.

4.1.3: Introduction to Inflection

Learning Objective

Define grammatical inflection

Key Points

• In English grammar, “inflection” refers to changing a word to suit its grammatical context (e.g., making a noun plural when you’re talking about more than one, making a verb past tense when you’re talking about something that has already happened).
• In English, there are many rules that tell you how to change words to suit context, but there are also quite a few exceptions that you’ll just have to memorize.
• Pronouns and nouns change form depending on whether they are the subject (i.e., the actor) or the direct or indirect object (i.e., the thing being acted upon) of a sentence.

Key Terms

conjugation

The creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection.

declension

The inflection of nouns, pronouns, articles, and adjectives.

inflection

In the grammatical sense, modifying a word, usually by adding letters, to create a different form of that word.

In English grammar, “inflection” is the broad umbrella term for changing a word to suit its grammatical context. You’ve probably never heard this word before, but you actually do it all the time without even thinking about it. For example, you know to say “Call me tomorrow” instead of “Call I tomorrow”; you’ve changed the noun “I” to fit the context (i.e., so it can be used as a direct object instead of a subject).

A word you might have heard before, especially if you’ve taken a foreign language like Spanish, is “conjugation.” Conjugation is the specific type of inflection that has to do with verbs. For example, you change a verb based on who is performing the verb: you would say “You call me,” but “She calls me.” Again, you know to do this automatically.

Nouns and Pronouns

We often need to change nouns based on grammatical context. For example, if you change from singular to plural (e.g., from “cat” to “cats,” or from “syllabus” to “syllabi”), you’re “inflecting” the noun. Similarly, if you’re changing the pronoun “I” to “me,” or “she” to “her,” the person you’re referring to isn’t changing, but the word you use does, because of context. “She calls I” is incorrect, as is “Her calls me”; you know to instead say “She calls me.”

Verbs

To recap, “conjugation” refers to changing a verb to suit its grammatical context. This can mean changing the verb based on who is performing the verb (e.g., “you read,” but “she reads”) or based on the time the action is occurring, also known as the verb’s “tense” (e.g., “you walk” for the present, and “you walked” for the past).

Adjectives

You also might need to change some adjectives based on the grammatical context of the rest of your sentence. For example, if you’re trying to compare how sunny today’s weather is to yesterday’s weather, you would change the adjective “sunny” to “sunnier”: “Today is sunnier than yesterday.”

Adverbs

Inflecting adverbs is very similar to how you change adjectives. For example, if you want to compare how quickly two students are learning math, you would change the adverb “easily” to “more easily”: “Huck is learning his fractions much more easily than Tom is.”

4.2: Nouns

4.2.1: Nouns as Subjects and Objects

Nouns can be either the subject or object of sentences.

Learning Objective

Identify whether a noun functions as a subject or object

Key Points

• The subject of a sentence completes the action of the sentence.
• The direct object of the sentence receives the action of the sentence.
• The indirect object of the sentence answers the question “to whom/what?” or “for whom/what?” for the action of the sentence.
• For sentences in active voice, the subject comes before the verb.
• For sentences in passive voice, the subject comes after the verb.

Key Terms

subject noun

Completes the action(s) in a sentence.

object noun

Receives the action in a sentence or answers the question “to whom/what?” or “for whom/what?”

Nouns can take on two different roles in a sentence: they can be subjects or objects. Understanding subjects and objects simply means understanding who (or what) performed an action, and who (or what) was affected by that action.

Identifying Subjects

In a sentence, the subject completes the action. The subjects are italicized in the examples below:

• Mary drew a picture for her mother. 
• Lions eat many animals, such as rabbits.

The subject does not have to be a person or animal—it can also be an inanimate object: 

• The coffee let off steam. 
• The cup is on the table. 

Note that the subject includes not just the noun, but also the article (e.g., the, a, an) that goes along with it.

Identifying Objects

An object is the recipient of an action. There are two types of object: direct and indirect. 

Direct Objects

In a sentence, the direct object receives the action of the subject. See the italicized direct objects in the examples below:

• Mary drew a picture.
• The tiger chased the bunny. 

Indirect Objects

In a sentence, the indirect object answers the question “to whom or what?” or “for whom or what?” See the italicized indirect objects in the examples below.

• Mary drew a picture for her mother.
• Bill threw the ball to his sister.

Sign

In this sign saying “Do not feed the coyotes”, are coyotes the subject, the object, or the indirect object? (Answer: They are the direct object.)

Identifying Indirect Objects without a Preposition

Sometimes direct object and indirect object cannot be identified by word order alone—and there is not always a “to” or “for” to make it clear: 

• The boy fed the dog a bone. 

To correctly identify the indirect object, ask yourself which part of the sentence would answer the question “to/for whom or what?” 

• “The boy fed a bone to the dog.” 

Phrased this way, it becomes clear that the dog is the indirect object and the bone is the direct object.

Identifying Subject and Object in
the Active Voice

If a sentence is written in the
active voice, it means that the subject comes before the verb, and the
object follows the verb. All of the examples above are written in the active
voice. 

A simple way to identify whether a
noun is a subject or an object in an active-voice sentence is to note where it
is in the sentence. If the noun precedes the verb, it is the subject. If it
follows the verb, it is the object. See the examples below:

• The alien landed the spaceship. (“The alien” is
  the subject and “the spaceship” is the direct object.) 
• Mathilda ate the sandwich. (“Mathilda” is the
  subject and “the sandwich” is the direct object.)

Identifying Subject and Object in
the Passive Voice

In passive-voice sentences, the usual rules do not apply. Rather, we need to look at word order to find the subject and object. In a passive-voice sentence, keep in mind that the order will be subject–verb phrase–object. See the following examples.

• The sandwich was eaten by Mathilda. (“The
  sandwich” is the subject and “Mathilda” is the object.)
• The spaceship was steered by the alien. (“The
  spaceship” is the subject and “the alien” is the object.)

In the passive voice, a noun coming after the word “by” is an object, while a noun coming before a form of the verb “to be” (e.g., “was”) is the subject. Note the italicized words in the examples above.

Verb Types and Objects

Not all verbs require objects. A verb that requires an object is called a transitive verb: 

• She wants cake.

Without the object “cake,” the sentence is incomplete and doesn’t make sense. What does she want? 

A verb that does not require an object is called an intransitive verb: 

• I slept. 

With an intransitive verb, the sentence is complete with the subject and verb alone.

4.3: Pronouns

4.3.1: Introduction to Pronouns

Pronouns replace nouns to reduce redundancy and link phrases together to provide more information.

Learning Objective

Identify pronouns by type

Key Points

• Pronouns take the place of nouns to reduce redundancy. The noun a pronoun replaces is known as that pronoun’s antecedent.
• It is crucial to ensure that each pronoun has a clear antecedent so the reader does not get confused.
• Relative pronouns (“who,” “whom,” “whose,” “that,” “which”) are used to link subordinate clauses to the subject they describe.
• Interrogative pronouns introduce questions of identification (“who,” “whom,” “whose,” “what,” “which”).
• Demonstrative pronouns identify specific people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., “this,” “that,” “these,” “those”).
• Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things (e.g., “anyone,” “most”).

Key Terms

subordinate clause

A clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence but that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb in a larger sentence.

relative clause

A subordinate clause that modifies a noun.

antecedent

The noun being replaced by a pronoun.

Pronouns and Antecedents 

Pronouns can be very useful when standing in for other nouns or noun phrases. They make sentences less repetitive by eliminating the need to repeat the same nouns over and over again. However, they are only useful if the reader always knows what word the pronoun is replacing—the pronoun’s antecedent. This can partly be done through word order. Don’t separate a pronoun too far from its antecedent, and don’t use a pronoun unless its antecedent has already been established.

The different types of pronouns include the following:

• personal pronouns
• possessive pronouns
• intensive and reflexive pronouns
• relative pronouns
• interrogative pronouns
• demonstrative pronouns
• indefinite pronouns

Personal Pronouns 

Personal pronouns refer to a specific grammatical person. “Grammatical person” means either the first-person, second-person, or third-person. The first-person refers to yourself and therefore uses the pronoun “I.” The second-person pronoun is “you,” and the third-person pronouns are “he,” “she,” “it.” 

• I am going to the concert.
• You can come with me. 
• She did not get a ticket before they sold out. 

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns show ownership in relation to the pronoun. Possessive pronouns are “my,” “your,” “his,” “hers,” “its,” “ours,” “your,” and “their.” For example:

• Marvin was nervous meeting with the interviewer but shook her hand when introduced. 

Reflexive/Intensive Pronouns

Reflexive and intensive pronouns take the same form but have different uses. They include “myself,” “yourself,” “himself,” “herself,” “itself,” “ourselves,” “yourselves,” and “themselves.” Reflexive pronouns “reflect” back to the subject. You know a “-self” pronoun is reflexive if the sentence wouldn’t make sense without it. For example:

• (Reflexive) The model could see himself in the reflection of the camera lens. 

In contrast, an intensive pronouns provides extra emphasis, but the sentence would still make sense without it. For example:

• She finished the paper herself. 

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns link different phrases within a sentence to give more information about the people or things involved. They allow you to combine connected ideas in the same sentence rather than breaking them down into multiple ones.

Consider the difference between the following sentences:

• That man yelled at us to get off his lawn. He did not even own the property.
• The man who yelled at us to get off his lawn did not even own the property.

Both sentences communicate the same thing, but the second does a better job of connecting the two events. Similarly:

• Ruth is the store manager. She rang up my groceries. 
• Ruth is the store manager who rang up my groceries. 

As you can see, relative clauses can be useful in streamlining your writing and improving your flow. Be careful not to use too many of them at once, though; sentences that are too long may confuse your reader. Be sure to ask yourself whether the clause actually clarifies a sentence or makes it too long and complicated.

Types of Relative Pronouns

The main relative pronouns dealing with people are “who” (used to relate to people or creatures as subjects), “whom” (used to relate to people or creatures as subjects), and “whose” (used to relate to a possession of a person or creature).

• Person (subject): The girl who wore a yellow dress
• Person (object): The girl whom I complimented about her yellow dress
• Creature (subject): The cat who lived next door

The main relative pronouns dealing with things are “that” and “which.” “That” is used to relate to things (as both subjects and objects) when there is more than one thing you could be referring to:

• Thing (object): The desk that my mother bought
• Thing (subject): The desk that fell apart

These sentences imply that there are several different desks, and the additional information you provide—the desk that your mother bought, the desk that fell apart—is crucial to identify which of those several desks you’re talking about. 

Similarly, “which” is also used to relate to things (as both subjects and objects)—but its crucial difference is that it is used when there is only one thing you could be referring to. That is to say, the reader already knows exactly which item you’re referring to; you’re just telling them more detail about that item:

• Thing (object): The desk, which my mother bought
• Thing (subject): The desk, which fell apart

In these phrases, there are not several desks that the writer could be talking about; there is only one desk, period. The writer is giving the reader the information that the desk was bought by her mother, or that it fell apart—but that information isn’t necessary for identifying the thing in the first place.

It is important to note that in sentences using “which” as a relative pronoun, a comma is needed before the word “which” for the phrase to be grammatically correct.

Subordinate Clauses

Relative pronouns introduce what are called subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses are phrases within a sentence that modify the subject of the sentence. For example, in the phrase “The girl who wore a yellow dress,” the subordinate clause “who wore a yellow dress” helps to modify the subject of “the girl.” That is to say, it helps answer the question, “which girl?” Similarly, in the phrase “The desk that fell apart,” the subordinate clause “that fell apart” helps to identify which desk the writer is talking about.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. The main forms are “who/whom” (for people and beings), “whose” (for possessive pronouns), “what” (to introduce general questions), and “which” (for identification and comparison):

• Person or being (as subject): Who wants to go to the movies with me?
• Person or being (as object): To whom was the letter addressed?
• Possessive: Whose is that book on the table?
• General question: What time is it? What do you think of the weather today?
• Identification: Which desk are you talking about?
• Comparison: Which play do you think is better, Hamlet or King Lear?

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point out specific people, places, things, and ideas. The main forms are “this/that” (singular) and “these/those” (plural). These pronouns can either be used for comparisons or on their own. They are also called determiners and can function as adjectives for their antecedents:

• Comparison: I would rather go to that restaurant than this one.
• Alone: I think this book is really good.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things. Indefinite pronouns include:

• all
• both
• any
• few
• everyone
• each
• nobody
• some
• several
• neither

Choose your indefinite pronoun based on the number or amount of people or things you’re talking about. As always, remember to make sure that the antecedent is clear; avoid ambiguous sentence constructions in which pronouns could refer to multiple different words.

4.3.2: Pronouns as Subjects and Objects

Pronouns can be the subject or the object of a sentence. 

Learning Objective

Identify whether a pronoun functions as a subject or object

Key Points

• Pronouns take the place of a noun and can be personal, possessive, reflexive, or intensive. 
• Pronouns can be the subject or the object of a sentence. 
• Using the various types of pronouns appropriately in sentences will improve your writing.  

Key Terms

possessive pronoun

A word that shows ownership. 

intensive pronoun

A word that emphasizes the noun.

object pronoun

A word that is typically used as the direct or indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition. 

subject pronoun

A word that is used as the subject of a verb. 

reflexive pronoun

A word that refers back to the subject. 

Pronouns as Subjects and Objects

In a sentence, the subject completes the action whereas the object is the recipient of that action. Pronouns can act as both subjects and objects. 

• Example: Janice has a yellow car. She drives it every day. 
• Explanation: “She” is the subject pronoun referring to Janice and “it” is the object pronoun referring to the car.  

As long as their antecedents are clear, using pronouns as subjects and objects in your academic writing greatly simplifies your wording and communicates your ideas much more powerfully.

Personal Pronouns

Personal Subject Pronouns

Personal subject pronouns refer to the one or ones completing an action. Personal subject pronouns are I, he, she, it, we, you, they. For example:

• I am going to the mall. 
• You can go to the game. 

Both “I” and “you” are pronouns. In these examples they are subject pronouns because they are completing an action. 

Personal Object Pronouns

Personal object pronouns refer to one or ones who receive the action. Personal object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, them. For example:

• Jane is coming with me.
• I’m giving him the car tonight. 

In these examples, “me” and “him” are receiving the action of the verb. Therefore, they are object pronouns. 

Possessives

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns show ownership in relation to the pronoun. Possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, it, ours, yours, and theirs. For example:

• The house on the corner is his. 

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives show ownership. Possessive adjectives are my, your, his, her, its, our, and their. For example, when paired with the noun school in a sentence, his becomes a possessive adjective.

• His school is a few miles away. 

Intensive/Reflexive

Reflexive pronouns refer back to, or “reflect” (hence the name), the subject. Intensive pronouns emphasize the noun. Intensive and reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

• Intensive example: I did it myself. 

“Myself” emphasizes “I” and is therefore an intensive pronoun. Also, if “myself” were removed, the meaning of the sentence would not change. 

• Jane bought herself a car. 

“Herself” is the reflexive pronoun because it “reflects” back to the subject: Jane.

Other categories of pronouns do not have forms for every single category on the lists above. Their forms are determined primarily by their grammatical function or antecedent rather than by person. Some do have forms that depend on number.

4.4: Verbs

4.4.1: Introduction to Verbs: Tense, Aspect, and Mood

Verbs are crucial to expressing a sentence’s meaning, so it is important to use them correctly. 

Learning Objective

Identify transitive, intransitive, and linking verbs

Key Points

• Every sentence needs a verb. Verbs express action, describe an event, or establish a state of being. 
• Verbs are influenced by tense, aspect, and mood. 
• “Verb tense” refers to when the action occurred. The most common tenses are past, present, or future.
• “Verb aspect” refers to the flow of time. Aspect addresses whether or not the action takes place in a single block of time or if the action is continuous or repeated.
• “Verb mood” refers to the “attitude” of the action. Is the verb actually happening, possibly happening, or being commanded to happen? 

Key Terms

verb

A word that expresses an action, describes an occurrence, or establishes a state of being. 

direct object

A word that answers the question, “What is being acted upon?” In “Danielle ate fruit,” fruit is a direct object of the verb ate.

aspect

Describes the action’s degree of progress or completion. The three main aspects are indefinite, progressive, and perfect.

tense

Any of the forms of a verb that distinguish when an action or state of being occurs or exists. The three simple tenses are past, present, and future.

A verb is a word that expresses an action, describes an occurrence, or establishes a state of being. Every sentence needs at least one verb, which is paired with the subject. All verbs have tense, aspect, and mood, of which there is a wide variety of combinations. These concepts are part of the foundation of accurately expressing your thoughts in writing.

Verb Tense 

Tense indicates when the action expressed by a verb takes place. The three simple tenses are past, present, and future.

Different tenses take different verb forms, either by changing the word itself or by adding helping verbs. There is no single formula for how to change verb tenses. Here are a few examples:

Present Tense

Present tense expresses unchanging actions and states of being. It is also used with recurring actions and with universal or widespread truths.

• I walk
• She runs

Past Tense

Past tense is used for actions that started and finished in the past.

• I walked
• She ran

Future Tense

Future tense expresses an action or event that will take place in the future.

• I will walk
• She will run

Verbal Aspect

“Verbal aspect” refers to the timing of the verb. More specifically, it addresses whether the action occurs in a single block of time, continuously, or repetitively. All verbs have both tense and aspect. Verbal aspect consists of simple, progressive, perfect, or perfect progressive, where each refers to a different fabric of time. 

Simple

The simple aspect is used to express a single action, a repeated action, or a permanent state. 

• Permanent state: David lives in Raleigh, North Carolina. 
• Repeated or habitual action: He runs every morning. 
• Single action: He graduated from the University of North Carolina. 

Progressive

The progressive aspect is used to talk about continuous events.

• Dr. Jones was lecturing about grammar. 
• Jane is reading a novel. 

Perfect 

The perfect aspect is used to discuss completed actions. It is often formed by the verb have combined with a past tense verb. 

• My family had left before the flooding reached our home. 
• She has visited their mountain home. 

Perfect Progressive

The perfect progressive combines the perfect and the progressive to refer to the completed portion of a continuous action. 

• The news crew had been working for more than twelve hours to provide full coverage of the event. 
• I will have been sleeping for many hours by then.

Verbal Mood

Verb mood is to the “attitude” of the verb. More specifically, “mood” refers to the degree of necessity, obligation, or probability. Is it a statement of fact? Is it a command?

Mood can be expressed in any verb tense. The three main moods used in English are indicative, subjunctive, imperative. 

Indicative

The indicative mood is used for factual statements.

• Sally is drinking coffee.
• Sally drinks coffee.
• Sally drank coffee. 

Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood is for hypothetical situations, emotions, or making requests. It is often (but not always) paired with a clause containing would, should, or could, or an if-then statement.

• If I were a pilot, I would fly through the clouds.
• The carousel closed. I wish it were still in use. 

Imperative

The imperative mood is used to give commands. 

• Go finish your homework. 
• Please hang your coat. 
• Don’t eat a snack now or  you’ll ruin your supper. 

Special Types of Verbs

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs are used to connect subjects with their complements. They may be the main verb in a sentence, even if they express a description rather than an action. The most common linking verb is to be, which takes many different forms:

• This tea is hot.
• There are many books in his library.

Other common linking verbs include the following:

• appear
• become
• seem
• taste
• continue
• remain

Linking verbs take no direct objects. Consequently, if a sentence’s main verb is a linking verb, it cannot be written in the passive voice.

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs describe actions that are done to a specific thing, called the verb’s direct object.

• She cut her hair. (Subject: She. Transitive verb: cut. Direct object: her hair.)
• Romeo kissed Juliet. (Subject: Romeo. Verb: kissed. Object: Juliet.)

All of the verbs are performed by the subject, to something or someone else.

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs are actions that are complete on their own, and do not require any object:

• Sally ran fast.
• The bird flew.

Most verbs can be classified as transitive or intransitive, depending on their context. Just remember, if your verb has an object, make sure it’s clear to the reader: Don’t say “Sally kissed her” if you don’t know who “her” is! 

He walked the wire

The verb tense in the title signals that this action took place in the past. It is not only important to have subject and verb agreement, but also to utilize the correct verb tense to ensure that a sentence contains its intended meaning.

4.4.2: Verb Tense: Past, Present, and Future

Verb tense indicates whether the action of a sentence occurred in the past, present, or future.

Learning Objective

Identify the tense of a verb

Key Points

• In English, the three basic verb tenses are past, present, and future.
• Verbs in past tense express what happened in the past.
• Verbs in present tense express actions that are currently happening, or occur over a period of time that includes the present.
• Verbs in future tense express actions that will happen in the future.
• All verbs have both tense and aspect. Because there are three verb tenses and four verb aspects, there are twelve possible combinations of tense and aspect.

Key Terms

tense

Any of the forms of a verb that distinguish when an action or state of being occurs or exists. The three simple tenses are past, present, and future.

verb

A word that indicates an action, event, or state.

aspect

A grammatical category that expresses how a verb relates to the flow of time. 

Verb Tenses

The verb contains the action of the sentence. Without verbs, we couldn’t talk about running, or jumping, or eating. And without verb tenses, we couldn’t talk about when we did those things. Did we eat dinner yesterday? Will we go for a run tomorrow? We need verb tenses to talk about time.

Present Tenses

The present tense refers to circumstances that exist now, or that have occurred over a period of time that includes the present. Present tense can also be used to express basic facts or circumstances that are continuous. 

Simple Present

The simple present expresses current events, recurring events, and general facts.

• There is a shady park down the block.
• I paint a portrait of my cat every week.
• Mary hears a noise in the attic.

The verbs is, paint, and hears are in the simple present tense. They refer to actions that are occurring in the present.

Present Progressive 

The present progressive expresses continuous actions.

• I am reading a letter.
• The car is running at high speed.
• Michael and Anna are always working in the library.

To show that the action is continuous the verbs reading, running, and working are paired with the appropriate form of the verb to be (am, is, are). 

Present Perfect

The present perfect expresses a completed event that is still relevant to the present.

• I have read several of Shaw’s novels.
• She has seen him every Saturday this month.
• Jed has sampled six ice cream flavors so far.

In these examples, have and has are paired with read, seen, and sampled to show readers that these actions began in the past and are still occurring in the present. 

Present Perfect Progressive

Finally, the present perfect progressive expresses a continuous action that began in the past and continues into the present.

• I have been standing on this corner for six hours.
• She has been dreaming of becoming an actress since she was ten.
• Even though it’s raining, that Girl Scout has been selling cookies all day.

The present perfect progressive tense combines have/has with been and the verb to show that the action began in the past and is still occurring in the present. 

Past Tenses

The past tense refers to events that have occurred in the past or an event that occurred continually in the past. It can also be used when discussing hypothetical situations. The types of past tense are simple past, past progressive, past perfect, and the past perfect progressive.  

Simple Past

First, the simple past expresses a past event:

• Last week, I read several of Shaw’s novels.
• The mother took her son to the beach every day last summer.
• The book sat on the shelf, collecting dust.

The verbs read, took, and sat are in the past tense to show these actions have already occurred. 

Past Progressive

The past progressive expresses a continuous action in the past:

• She was giving a presentation when the microphone broke.
• The computer was downloading the file for 20 minutes.
• During their first year, the puppies were growing at an alarming rate.

In the past progressive tense, the primary action verbs (in this case giving, downloading, and growing) are paired with the past tense of the verb to be (was/were) to show that the action occurred continually in the past. 

Past Perfect

The past perfect expresses a completed action from the past.

• I had already seen him that morning.
• As soon as my car had been repaired, I continued my trip.
• The power had gone out by then.

This verb tense uses had, paired with a verb, to show that the verb is a completed action.

Past Perfect Progressive

The past perfect progressive expresses a continuous, completed action that had taken place in the past.

• I had been listening to the radio when she dropped in.
• The car had been running smoothly until the exhaust pipe fell off.
• She realized she had been standing on his foot when he gently shoved her.

The past perfect progressive tense combines have/has with been and the past tense of the verb (listening, running, standing) to show that the action occurred continually in the past until the action was completed. 

Future Tenses

The future tense is used to express circumstances that will occur in the future. The future tense is different from the present and past tenses in that there is not usually a type of verb conjugation that shows the future tense. Instead, future verbs are formed by combining them with words like will or shall, or the phrase going to. The different future tenses are simple future, future progressive, future perfect, and future perfect progressive. 

Simple Future

The simple future expresses an action that will take place in the future.

• Next week, her uncle will be in town.
• Will you carry this bag for me?

To show that these actions take place in the future, the verbs are paired with will. 

Future Progressive

The future progressive expresses a continuous action which will take place in the future.

• He will be conducting a meeting between noon and one o’clock every day this week.
• Next summer, Jake will be traveling through South America.

To show that the action is continuous and in the future, the verbs are paired with will be, and to show that they are progressive, the main verb ends in -ing.

Future Perfect

The future perfect expresses a completed action that will have taken place in the future.

• We will have finished cooking by the time you arrive.
• Margaret will have dropped off her niece at the airport before meeting Joe.

In these examples, will and have are paired with the main verb to show readers that these actions will take place in the future, but will have already occurred.

Future Perfect Progressive

Lastly, the future perfect progressive tense expresses a continuous, completed action that will have taken place in the future.

• I will have been exercising for hours by the time you wake up tomorrow.
• When they arrive, they will have been traveling for 12 hours straight.

The verb has will to show that it takes place in the future, have been to show that it is completed, and an -ing verb to show that it is progressive or continuous.

Verb tense

The table shows how to correctly format verbs in a given tense. The “continuous” aspect is another name for the progressive aspect.

4.4.3: Verbal Aspect: Simple, Progressive, Perfect, and Perfect Progressive

“Aspect” refers to whether a verb is continuous, completed, both continuous and completed, or neither continuous nor completed.

Learning Objective

Identify the aspect of a verb

Key Points

• Aspect gives us additional information about a verb by telling us whether the action was completed, continuous, neither, or both.
• The simple aspect is for actions that are neither completed nor continuous.
• The perfect aspect is for actions that are completed, but not continuous.
• The progressive aspect is for actions that are continuous, but not completed.
• The perfect progressive aspect is for actions that are both continuous and completed.
• All verbs have both tense and aspect. Because there are three verb tenses and four verb aspects, there are twelve possible combinations of tense and aspect.

Key Terms

tense

A quality of verbs which indicates whether the verb occurred in the past, present, or future.

aspect

A quality of verbs which indicates whether the verb is continuous, completed, both of those, or neither.

Verb Aspect

We need tense to know if an event took place in the past, present, or future, but that’s not all we need in order to know what happened. Aspect gives us additional information about a verb by telling us whether the action was completed, continuous, neither, or both.

“Aspect” refers to the flow of time. Does the action take place in a single block of time, does the action occur continuously, or is the action a repetitive occurrence? There are four main aspects: simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive. 

Since all verbs have both tense and aspect, all combinations of tenses and aspects, such as past progressive and future perfect, are possible. Think about it this way: tense tells us when an action began, and aspect tells us whether that action was continuous, completed, or something else.

Simple

The simple aspect describes a general action, one that is neither continuous nor completed. It is usually used to describe an action that takes place habitually.

Simple Past

Verbs in simple past describe a normal or habitual action that began in the past,  and used to happen but no longer does.

• June rode her bike to work every day that year.
• You had a dog when you were young, right?

Simple Present

Verbs in simple present describe a habitual action that still occurs in the present.

• My dad always enjoys novels about bakeries. 
• Grandma drops me off at the bus stop every morning.

Simple Future

Verbs in simple future describe an action that will begin in the future, and occur with regularity or certainty. To describe an action that will happen in the future, precede your main verb with “will,” “shall,” or another word or phrase indicating that the action occurs in the future.

• The sun will rise at 6:38 AM tomorrow. 
• She will call you back after dinner.

Progressive

The progressive form expresses continuous actions that happen over a period of time. They almost always involve some combination of the verb “to be” paired with the main verb ending in -ing.

Past Progressive

Past progressive verbs express actions that began in the past and were continuous, but did not continue into the present. In the past progressive tense, the main verb is paired with the past tense of the verb “to be” (was/were) to show that the action occurred continually in the past. 

• She was always saying stuff like that.
• I was running late all morning. 

Present Progressive

Present progressive verbs express actions that are continuous, and are still happening at the present moment. In present progressive, the main verb is paired with the present tense of the verb “to be” (is/are) to show that the action is happening currently.

• Phil is running around the block.
• Are you enjoying your tacos? 

Future Progressive

Future progressive verbs express actions that will begin in the future and be continuous. In future progressive, the main verb is paired with the future tense of the verb “to be” (will be) to show that the action will begin in the future.

• I will be heading home around nine o’clock.
• He will be traveling around the Yukon later this year.

Perfect

The perfect form refers to events that have been completed, but are still relevant to the speaker in the present moment. It almost always involves some form of the verb “have” combined with another verb.

Past Perfect

Verbs in past perfect express an action that both began and was completed in the past. Use “had” paired with the main verb in simple past tense.

• We had left before the stadium got crowded.
• Don’t worry, Emmett had already ruined the surprise.

Present Perfect

Verbs in present perfect express actions that began in the past, and have just now been completed. Use “has” or “have” paired with the main verb in simple past tense.

• Omar has finished his dinner. 
• Laura and Tomika have arranged the memorial.

Future Perfect

Verbs in future perfect express actions that will be completed in the future. Use “will have” paired with the main verb in simple past tense.

• I hope you will have completed your report by then!
• They will have won over half their games by the end of the season.

Perfect Progressive 

The perfect progressive, just as you would expect, is a combination of the perfect and progressive aspects. Perfect progressive refers to the completed portion of an ongoing action. It almost always involves a form of the verb “have” and a form of the verb “to be” combined with a verb ending in -ing.

Past Perfect Progressive

Verbs in past perfect progressive express a continuous, completed action that had taken place in the past. Use “had been” combined with the -ing form of the main verb.

• She was tired because she had been running.
• I had been lying awake for hours when the alarm went off. 

Present Perfect Progressive

Verbs in present perfect progressive express a continuous action that began in the past and continues into the present. Use “has been” or “have been” combined with the -ing form of the main verb.

• He has been working on his paper all morning.
• The librarians have been helping me with my research.

Future Perfect Progressive

Verbs in future perfect progressive express a continuous, completed action that will have taken place in the future. Use “will have been” combined with the -ing form of the main verb.

• By the time the winter ends, we will have been getting a foot of snow every week.
• This spring, I will have been working for Cool Stuff, Inc. for twenty years!

4.4.4: Verb Mood: Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative

Grammatical mood is a verb feature that allows speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying.

Learning Objective

Identify the mood of a verb

Key Points

• Grammatical mood is a verb feature that allows writers to express their attitude toward what they are saying.
• The most commonly used mood is the indicative mood, which is used to express factual statements. 
• The subjunctive mood refers to hypothetical situations.
• The imperative mood gives commands or makes requests. 

Key Terms

grammatical mood

A feature of verbs which expresses the speaker’s attitude toward the subject.

imperative mood

Gives commands or makes requests.

indicative mood

Expresses factual statements. 

subjunctive mood

Expresses situations that are hypothetical or conditional. 

Grammatical mood allows speakers and writers to express their attitudes toward what they are saying (for example, whether it is intended as a statement of fact, of desire, or of command). In English, there are many grammatical moods, but by far the most common are the indicative, the imperative, the subjunctive, and the conditional.

You can change tense and aspect of a verb by changing something about the verb itself: For example, to make the verb “enjoy” past tense, you add -ed to the end. In English, mood is a little different. You don’t change anything about the verb itself. Instead, you change the sentence structure to express a certain mood.

The Indicative Mood

In English, the indicative mood is the most commonly used. It is used to express factual statements. 

• Atlanta is the capital of Georgia.
• Penguins cannot fly.
• Jebediah likes the beach. 

The Imperative Mood

The imperative mood expresses direct commands, prohibitions, and requests. In other words, it is used to tell someone to do something. In the imperative mood, the subject is almost always implied to be “you.”

• Do your homework now.
• Please don’t leave your bag there.

However, sometimes the subject can be implied to be “we.”

• Let’s go!

Let’s go

The imperative mood expresses direct commands and prohibitions. 

The Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood is not commonly used in English. It is used for discussing imaginary or hypothetical events and situations, expressing opinions or emotions, or making polite requests. Usually, the subjunctive mood is used in a dependent clause. Subjunctive sentences are often of the following form: [Indicative verb phrase setting up a hypothetical scenario such as “I wish,” “I believe,” “I hope”] + [Subjunctive phrase describing hypothetical scenario].

• I wish Paul would eat more healthfully. [Main clause “I wish” is factual and in indicative mood; dependent clause “Paul would eat” is hypothetical and in subjunctive mood.]
• I suggest that we wait until after dinner to eat the cake. [Main clause “I suggest” is factual and in indicative mood; dependent clause “we wait until” is hypothetical and in subjunctive mood.]

The Conditional Mood

The conditional mood is used for speaking of an event whose completion depends on another event. In English, the conditional mood is usually of the form “would” + bare verb with no tense or aspect markers.

• I would go swimming if it weren’t so rainy.
• He would bake more often if he had a better oven.

4.5: Modifiers: Adjectives and Adverbs

4.5.1: Introduction to Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Learning Objective

Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs

Key Points

• Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns.
• Adjectives typically answer the questions how many?; How much?; What kind?; or Which one?
• Adverbs
  modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
• Adverbs commonly describe how, when, or where the action of a verb took place.

Key Terms

adjectives

A part of speech that describes, quantifies, or identifies a noun or pronoun. 

adverb

A part of speech that describes, quantifies, or identifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. 

Adjectives and Adverbs

Have you ever seen a photo of the Great Wall of China? It’s simply enormous. It’s incredibly long, snaking its stony way across the mountains and valleys of Asia, with beautiful towers standing tall every couple of hundred feet. But without modifiers, “the Great Wall”  would simply be “the Wall.” We need adverbs and adjectives in order to be descriptive in our writing.

Adjectives, like “great,” “enormous,” “stony,” “long,” and “beautiful,” modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbs, like “simply” and “incredibly,” modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Great Wall of China

Without adjectives, “the Great Wall” would just be “the Wall.”

Descriptive words can significantly improve your writing. They enhance the quality of information you provide, making your work more precise. However, you don’t want to overwhelm your reader with unnecessary or excessive description. Try to strike a balance.

Adjectives

Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns. Remember, a noun is a person, place, or thing. Pronouns, such as I, me, we, he, she, it, you, and they, take the place of nouns. Adjectives also answer the following questions: What kind? How many? How much? Which one?

Descriptions concerning What kind? offer descriptive details about the noun or pronoun. It may describe physical characteristics or emotions. Here are a few examples: the black car, the angry customer, the fashionable teen. 

The questions How many? and How much? refer to quantity of the noun or pronoun being described by the adjective. Quantity can be specific (four ducks) or general (some ducks). Here are some more examples: fourteen cents, a few puppies, several kittens, a dozen books. 

Which one? specifically describes which object is being referred to. These are workhorse words like “this,” “that,” “these,” and other words like “them”: that car, this letter, those volunteers. 

Adjectives are helpful when additional description is needed for a noun or pronoun. Like adjectives, adverbs can also help add details to your writing. 

Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They commonly describe how, when, or where the action of a verb took place. How refers to the manner in which an action occurred. When addresses the time of the action. Where investigates the place or location the action took place. Here are some examples:

• The boys ran loudly down the stairs. [How did the boys run? Loudly.]
• We went down later. [When did we go? Later.]
• He delivered pizza locally. [Where did he deliver? Locally.]

Adverbs can also be used to modify adjectives and other adverbs. 

• The train leaves at a reasonably early hour. [The adverb reasonably modifies the adjective early.]
• She spoke quite passionately about politics. [The adverb quite modifies the adverb passionately.]

Which Should You Use: Adjectives or Adverbs?

Writers often have a choice in wording a sentence to use either an adjective or an adverb:

• Adjective: We had a quick lunch.
• Adverb: We ate lunch quickly.  

So, how do you choose when to use an adjective and when to use an adverb? One way to choose is simply to figure out whether the word you want to modify is a noun or a verb. In the first sentence, you are describing the lunch; in the second sentence, you are describing the manner of eating.

A better approach, though, is not to think about the words you could modify but the information you want to convey. You do not need to describe every noun or verb—just the ones whose details are important to the sentence. If you want to emphasize the meal, you would pick the first sentence; if you want to emphasize the act of eating, you would pick the second.

Remember, adjectives and adverbs can be separated by which types of information they provide. Think about the details that are necessary to include, and then choose your modifiers accordingly.

4.5.2: Adjectives

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.

Learning Objective

Identify adjectives

Key Points

• Adjectives are used to describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns. 
• They answer these questions: What kind? How many? How much? Which one?
• Compound adjectives are used when two adjectives are needed to describe a noun.
• Adjectives can be used to compare two different things. 

Key Terms

adjective

A word that modifies a noun or pronoun.

compound adjective

One word formed with two hyphenated words and used to describe a noun. 

Adjectives

Adjectives describe, quantify, or identify pronouns and nouns. They also answer the following questions: What kind? How many? How much? Which one?

Descriptions about “What kind?” add detail about the qualities of the noun or pronoun being described. This ranges from details regarding physical characteristics to emotional states. Here are some examples: the yellow dress, the sad clown, the smart pupil. 

Descriptions answering “How many?” and “How much?” specify the amount of whatever noun or pronoun you are modifying. Quantifying adjectives can be specific (ten candles, three hundred pages) or general (several minutes, a few people, some candy).

Descriptions answering “Which one?” confirm exactly which object the writer is referring to. Examples include phrases such as “that novel,” “this writer,” or “those students.” Most adjectives that serve this purpose are called determiners or demonstrative pronouns.

Compound Adjectives

In some situations, two adjectives may be used to describe a noun. Sometimes these two adjectives remain separate, as two distinctive words describing the noun. But other times, the adjectives combine to become one adjective joined by a hyphen.

• The phrase a heavy metal detector refers to a metal detector that is heavy in weight. Heavy and metal are separate adjectives describing the detector in this situation. 
• The phrase a heavy-metal detector refers to a detector of heavy metals. Heavy-metal is the compound adjective describing the detector. 

As you can see, the hyphen completely changes the meaning of the phrase by combining two words into one. Here’s another example:

• The phrase man eating shark refers to a man who is eating a shark.
• The phrase man-eating shark refers to a shark that eats men. 

Adjectives for Comparison

Adjectives are also used to compare items:

• This year’s graduating class was smaller than last year’s class. 
• This book is the best one we’ve read so far.

The standard form for using adjectives for comparison is to add -er to the end of an adjective being used to compare two items (brighter, cooler) and -est to the end of an adjective used to compare more than two items (brightest, coolest). However, some adjectives—for example, ones that are three or more syllables—like beautiful are changed to say “more beautiful” and “most beautiful” rather than adding these endings. 

Pronouns as Adjectives

Sometimes, pronouns can be used as adjectives. In addition to demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns like “his” or “their” can also identify specific objects within a set. For example:

• Which car should we drive? We should drive her car. 
• Whose house is closest? Your house is closest.

Prepositional Phrases as Adjectival Phrases

Prepositional phrases can act as adjectives, normally modifying the noun that precedes them.

• Which books should we read? The books on the curriculum. 
• Whose stories did we listen to in class? Those of the teacher.

Lastly, in addition to single words, you can use adjectival phrases. These are phrases that begin with an adjective but then have a noun that adds further detail, such as “full of toys” instead of just “full.” They are most frequently used as a modifier placed right after a noun or as a predicate to a verb. For example, you could say “The child loved his bin full of toys,” or “That bin is full of toys.”

 

4.5.3: Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Learning Objective

Identify adverbs

Key Points

• An adverb is used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
• Adverbs answer these questions: When did something happen? How often did it occur? How was the action performed? Where did it take place?
• Sometimes, adverbs and adjectives are hyphenated to better describe a noun. 

Key Term

adverb

A part of speech which modifies verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

Adverbs

Just as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. How slimy was that swamp? Extremely slimy. How did she run? She ran quickly. How quickly did she run? Very quickly.

Adverbs are used to answer how, when, and where an action took place. More specifically, consider: When did something happen? How often did it occur? How was the action performed? Where did it take place? Let’s explore some examples:

• Describing when: The last time I went shopping was a while ago. 
• Describing how often: I visit my friends frequently. 
• Describing how: He ran quickly in the race. 
• Describing where: She sat down nearby.

Many adjectives can be made into adverbs simply by adding -ly to the end. However, there are other adverbs that do not end in -ly: very, quite, somewhat, most, least, and many others.

Prepositional Phrases as Adverbs

You can use prepositional phrases as adverbs if they modify a verb, adjective, or adverb. For example:

• Don’t judge a book by its cover. [The phrase “by its cover” describes the verb “judge.”]
• I am tired of this diet. [“Of this diet” describes the adjective “tired.”]

The Hyphenated Adverb

Hyphens can be used to combine an adverb and adjective to describe a noun. In this situation, the adverb is describing the adjective, and the adjective is describing the noun. However, when the adverb ends with -ly, a hyphen should not be used. Let’s review some examples.

• beautiful-looking flowers
• best-known author
• well-rounded student
• best-paid job

If the hyphen was removed from any of these examples the phrase would take on a different meaning. For example, “best-known author” describes the author who is known the best, whereas “best known author” would describe an author who is, separately, both best and known. The hyphen is what makes sure that “best” describes “known” rather than “author.”

4.5.4: Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

A modifier is a word or group of words that describes another word or group of words.

Learning Objective

Identify incorrectly used modifiers

Key Points

• A modifier is a word or phrase that describes, limits, or qualifies another word.
• Adjectives and adverbs are two types of modifiers as they are used to describe other words. 
• It is important to use modifiers correctly so readers understand your intended meaning.  
• Incorrect modifiers come in the form of dangling modifiers, misplaced modifiers, and squinting modifiers. 
• The best way to fix an incorrect modifier is to restructure the sentence. 

Key Terms

modifier

A word or phrase that describes, limits, or qualifies the sense of another word or phrase.

misplaced modifier

Occurs when it is unclear what word or words a modifier is referencing. 

squinting modifier

A word that is placed right next to the word it refers to, but is also near another word that it might be modifying.

dangling modifier

An error in the sentence in which a modifier is associated with a word or phrase that it is not supposed to describe. 

Modifiers

A modifier is a word or phrase that describes another word or phrase.
Two common types of modifiers are the adverb (a word that describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb) and the adjective (a word that describes a noun or pronoun). However, though all adjectives and adverbs are modifiers, not all modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. Many modifiers are entire phrases. For example:

• Responsible for representing students to the faculty and overseeing student organizations, the Student Council plays an important role in campus life. 

The modifying phrase (in italics) provides additional information about the subject of the sentence: the Student Council.

Clarity with Modifiers

Above all, it should always be clear to the reader which word an adjective, adverb, or modifying phrase is describing. By paying attention to placement and making sure that if you want to modify a verb you use an adverb instead of an adjective, you will make it much easier for your reader to pick up on your intended meaning. In situations where modifiers are used incorrectly, the result is a dangling modifier, a misplaced modifier, or a squinting modifier. 

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier occurs when the modifying phrase is too far away from the word it is supposed to describe. As a result, the modifier appears to refer to something else, causing confusion for the reader. Dangling modifiers can be corrected by restructuring the sentence. For example:

Giant Illustration?

• Dangling: Covering most of Minnesota, the illustration showed the glacier created thousands of lakes. [This phrasing makes it seem like the illustration covers most of Minnesota!]
• Corrected: Covering most of Minnesota, the glacier created thousands of lakes, as depicted on the illustration. [Here, the modifying phrase clearly refers to glacier as it is intended.]

Walking Winds?

• Dangling: Walking across the desert, fierce winds swirled around the riders. [Here, the dangling modifier makes it seem like the winds are walking across the desert!]
• Corrected: Fierce winds swirled around the riders as they walked across the desert. [The sentence has been rephrased so that the riders are the ones walking across the desert.]

Strolling Squirrels?

• Dangling:
  Strolling through the park, the squirrels scampered across our feet. [This dangling modifier makes it sound like the squirrels are enjoying a nice stroll in the park!]
• Corrected: As we strolled through the park, squirrels scampered across our feet. [The sentence has been clarified so that the speaker and his companion are the ones who are strolling.]

Misplaced Modifiers

Similar to a dangling modifier, a misplaced modifier occurs when it is unclear what word(s) the modifier is referencing. Most misplaced modifiers can be corrected by placing the modifying phrase next to the subject it refers to. For example:

Hurt Bicycle

• Misplaced: Erik couldn’t ride his bicycle with a broken leg. [Here, it sounds like the bicycle has a broken leg!]
• Corrected: With his broken leg, Eric couldn’t ride his bike. [Now that the modifier is in the right place, the sentence makes it clear that Eric is the one with a broken leg.]

Ballerina Dog

• Misplaced: The little girl walked the dog wearing a tutu. [Is she walking a dog that is wearing a tutu?]
• Corrected: Still wearing a tutu, the little girl walked the dog. [No, the young lady is the one in the tutu!]

Squinting Modifiers

A squinting modifier is a modifier that is placed right next to the word it refers to, but is also near another word that it might be modifying. This can also be corrected by restructuring the sentence. For example:

A Great Exercise

• Squinting: Cycling uphill quickly strengthens the leg muscles. [Here, “quickly” could modify either “cycling uphill” or “strengthens the leg muscles.”]
• Corrected: Quickly cycling uphill strengthens the leg muscles. [Now it’s clear that it’s the cycling that has to be quick!]

Peter, I’m Sure We Could Find You a Chair

• Misplaced: Peter ate the pie sitting on the windowsill. [Is Peter sitting on a windowsill or is the pie?]
• Corrected: Peter ate the pie that was sitting on the windowsill. [It was the pie.]

Dangling

To avoid dangling and misplaced modifiers in your writing, make sure the word or phrase being modified is clearly identified.

4.6: Conjunctions

4.6.1: Conjunctions: Coordination, Correlation, Conjunction, and Subordination

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words or phrases. 

Learning Objective

Choose the correct conjunction to connect two clauses

Key Points

• A conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. 
• Conjunctions help add variety to your writing because they can be used to create  sentences with different styles and meanings. 
• The different kinds of conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs.

Key Terms

coordinating conjunction

A word that joins words and phrases of equal syntactic importance.

conjunction

A part of speech that connects words or phrases. 

subordinating conjunction

A word that joins together the separate sections of a complex sentence.

In English grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. There are several different types of conjunctions. 

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join, or “coordinate,” two or more items (such as words, clauses, or sentences) of equal importance. The major coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. (You can use the acronym FANBOYS to remember these!) The most common coordinating conjunctions out of these are and, or, and but. 

And

“And” connects non-contrasting items or ideas:

• They want hamburgers and hot dogs.
• She likes swimming at the pool and in the river.
• I will go to the grocery store and pick up the kids.

Or

“Or” presents an alternative item or idea.

• They want either hamburgers or hot dogs.
• She likes swimming at the pool or in the river depending on how hot it is.
• I will either go to the grocery store or pick up the kids.

But

“But” presents a contrast or exception.

• They want hamburgers, but not hot dogs.
• She likes swimming at the pool, but not in the river.
• I will go to the grocery store, but I won’t pick up the kids.

Nor

“Nor” presents a non-contrasting negative idea.

• They want neither hamburgers nor hot dogs.
• She doesn’t like swimming at the pool, nor in the river.
• I will neither go to the grocery store nor pick up the kids.

Yet

“Yet” presents a contrast or exception (usually, one more surprising than “but”).

• They want hamburgers, yet they don’t want hot dogs.
• She likes swimming at the pool, yet not in the river.
• I can go to the grocery store, and yet I somehow don’t have time to pick up the kids.

So

“So” presents a consequence.

• They ate hamburgers, so they’re too full for hot dogs.
• She likes swimming at the pool so she doesn’t have to drive to the river.
• I am going to the grocery store, so I can pick up the kids on the way home.

For

“For” presents a rationale.

• They want hamburgers, for they are hungry.
• She likes swimming at the pool, for she wants to stay cool.
• I will go to the grocery store, for we need to buy ingredients.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join two separate clauses. The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, even if, even though, every time, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while.

• Joe went to the store because he needed some orange juice.
• After the movie is over, we can have dinner at my house.
• He likes horses, even though a pony bit him once.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs in order to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are many pairs of correlative conjunctions, including: either/or; not only / but also; neither/nor; both/and; whether/or. 

• You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.
• Not only is he handsome, but he is also brilliant.
• Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.
• Both the cross-country team and the swimming team are doing well.
• Whether you stay or go is your decision. 

Not only is the Sphinx in the picture, but the Pyramids are too.

The title contains an example of a correlative conjunction: “not only … but also.” A correlative conjunction is just one type of conjunction, which is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions can assist in creating sentences of various styles and emphases.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs express a relationship or transition between two separate parts of a complex sentence. Common conjunctive adverbs include so, otherwise, also, consequently, for example, furthermore, however, in addition, in contrast, in fact, instead, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, then, and therefore. For example:

• The CEO will be attending the lecture; accordingly, the vice president will be available for the luncheon at noon.
• Jaime wanted to see Billy Madison; however, Nick wanted to see Happy Gilmore.

4.7: Agreement and Parallelism

4.7.1: Subject-Verb Agreement

Verbs need to agree with the subject in both person and number.

Learning Objective

Recognize errors in subject-verb agreement

Key Points

• Verbs must agree with their subject in person and number.
• A first-person subject is I or we. Second person is you or you all. Third person is she, he, it, or they.
• A singular subject is a subject where there is only one person or thing; a plural subject is more than one person or thing.
• It’s good to double-check whether your verb agrees with your subject, as there are situations where it may be unclear.

Key Terms

collective noun

A number of people or things taken together and spoken of as a whole.

mass noun

A thing or concept usually referred to as a whole, rather than counted individually (e.g. advice or water).

plural

More than one in number.

verb

A word that indicates an action, an event, or a state of being.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In order for sentences to sound right, their verbs and subjects need to mesh well together. Since the subject is the one performing the action, the verb needs to match it in person and number.

“Person” is a way of saying who the subject is. There are three levels of “person” in English: first person, second person, and third person. To put it simply: In first person, the subject is I or we. Second person is you or you all. Third person is she, he, it, or they.

“Number” is a way of saying how many people (or objects) are in the subject. If only one person is in the subject, it’s singular. Otherwise, it’s plural.

Thus, a subject has both person and number, and the verb takes on the appropriate form. Take the examples below:

• Singular first person: I work.
• Singular second person: You work.
• Singular third person: He works.
• Plural first person: We work.
• Plural second person: You work.
• Plural third person: They work.

The verb “work” has two different forms, “work” and “works,” depending on the subject. 

Unusual Situations

As clear as this all seems, some situations are a bit trickier than others. For example, take an irregular verb like “be.”

• Singular first person: I am.
• Singular second person: You are.
• Singular third person: He is.
• Plural first person: We are.
• Plural second person: You are.
• Plural third person: They are.

This verb is highly irregular, and so it can be trickier to make sure that the subject and verb match in tense and number.

This is not the only unusual situation, however. Subject-verb agreement can become a little more complicated when the subject is very long and complex. When faced with situations like these, it is generally best to consider the entire complex subject phrase as one subject, and then think about what kind of thing it represents.

Compound Sentences

Compound sentences (two sentences joined by a clause) have a subject and verb in each clause. Make sure the subject of each clause agrees with the verb of each clause.

• The peanut butter is on the counter and the beans are in the bag.
• The children have a snow day, so I am going home early.

Modifying Phrases

Sometimes modifying phrases can come between the subject and verb of a sentence. This should not affect the subject-verb agreement.

• The idea of serving frankfurters is a good one.
• The children, along with their father, are taking a cab to the station.

Verb Precedes Subject

Sometimes the subject of a sentence can come after its verb. Even in these cases, the verb should still agree with the subject.

• Where are the candles for the cake?
• There is a quiet spot by the pond.

Compound Subjects

Compound subjects (two subjects joined by a conjunction) take plural verbs if they are joined by “and.” Think of it this way: you’ve got more than one subject, so your verb has to be plural. 

• The president and the children are at the party.
• My brothers and I are at the party.

Positive and Negative Subjects

When a positive subject and a negative subject are compounded and have different numbers, the verb should agree with the positive subject.

• It is not the assistant coaches but the head coach who calls the plays.
• It is the soup, but not the appetizers, that has poisoned the queen.

Or

When two nouns differing in number are joined by the word “or,” the verb should take the form of the noun closest to it. For example:

• Most viewers of the painting assume that either the monkey’s antics or the handler’s chagrin causes the young men’s laughter.

“Chagrin” is closer to the verb than “antics,” so the verb “causes” takes the singular form. Note that this is the case specifically because of the word “or.”

Indefinite Pronouns

Five indefinite pronouns always take plural verbs: others, both, many, few, and several.

• Both are arriving at the same time.
• Many people love parties.

However, most indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.

• Everybody is at the party.
• Either restaurant sounds good.

Some indefinite pronouns can take a singular or plural verb based on whether the noun to which they are referring is uncountable (singular) or countable (plural).

• Some (sand) is in my shoe.
• Some (pebbles) are in my shoe.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns (which refer to a group of beings or things as a single unit) are singular, and so take singular verbs.

• The audience was silent at the end of the play.
• The class has plenty of homework for the weekend.

Mass Nouns

Mass nouns, like “water” or “mud” are neither singular nor plural. You can’t say “one water” or “two waters” because it’s all just a continuous object (unless you are talking about two distinct containers of water). Mass nouns represent a generic, unknown amount of whatever they are. They take a singular verb form.

• My baggage was left at the airport. [The subject baggage is a mass noun, so the verb was is singular.] 
• My bags were left at the airport. [The subject bags is a plural noun, so the verb were is also plural to agree with the subject.]

Amounts

Amounts take singular verbs because they are treated as units, which are singular nouns.

• Ten dollars is enough to buy the book.
• All I need is fifteen minutes to finish the exam.

Some non-amount words end in “s” but also take singular verbs because they refer to units or single entities.

• Economics is an interesting subject.
• The news airs at six o’clock.

Pair Words

Some words ending in “s” refer to single objects but are considered plural and so should take plural verbs, unless they are preceded by “pair of” (in which case “pair” would be the subject).

• Your shoes are bright yellow.
• My favorite pair of pants is in the wash.

Titles

The title of a book or work of art is always singular even if a noun in the title is plural.

• The Three Musketeers is sitting on the shelf by the window.

Sums and products take singular verbs in mathematical equations. Fractional expressions vary depending on the meaning.

• Three plus four equals seven.
• Three-fourths of the professors vote Republican.

The child stands near the door.

The title demonstrates the necessity of subject-verb agreement. The third person subject, “The child,” requires that the verb also take a third person singular form, “stands.”

Revising

Most of the time, writers use subject-verb agreement automatically. Most of us are so used to doing it that we do not need to think about the rule in order to follow it. Nevertheless, you should be aware of subject-verb agreement when editing your papers, especially if they have gone through many revisions. This is one thing writers may forget to edit. Most mistakes happen because writers are not paying careful attention to the number and person of their subjects. 

To figure out which noun the verb should agree with, begin by crossing out any prepositional phrases or other descriptive clauses. Then focus on the verb and ask yourself, “Who or what is performing this action?” Pare it down to just a subject and verb, and see if it sounds right. Writers need to consider whether the subject of the sentence is singular or plural, and whether the subject is first person, second person, or third person. Once this has been determined, the correct conjugation of the verb can be used. 

4.7.2: Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

All pronouns must agree with their antecedent in number and gender.

Learning Objective

Recognize errors in pronoun-antecedent agreement

Key Points

• A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or a group of nouns in a sentence. 
• A pronoun should agree in number and gender with the noun or phrase it refers to.
• The noun or phrase a pronoun refers to is called the antecedent.
• Using proper pronoun-antecedent agreement is important to properly expressing your ideas in writing. 

Key Terms

pronoun

A word that replaces a noun or group of nouns in a sentence.

antecedent

A noun or noun phrase to which a pronoun refers. 

Pronouns and Antecedents

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun, or a group of nouns, in a sentence or sentences. A pronoun should agree in number and gender with the noun or phrase it refers to, which is known as the antecedent. Correct pronoun-antecedent agreement is crucial to writing professionally. 

A pronoun might have an antecedent from the previous sentence:

• Carolina hates cats. She has terrible allergies. [The pronoun she refers to the antecedent Carolina.]

But pronouns and antecedents can also occur in the same sentence:

Jim said he doesn’t like coffee. [The pronoun he refers to the antecedent Jim.]

• The twins helped by bringing their truck. [The pronoun their refers to the antecedent twins.]

Quantity Agreement

“Singular” means “one of something,” whereas “plural” means “more than one.” The singular pronouns include I, me, he, she, it, and more. Their antecedent will always be singular: just one person or object.

• Jamil was not as hungry. He stayed at the office. [The singular pronoun he refers to the antecedent Jamil.]

Examples of plural pronouns include we, us, they, and others. These pronouns must have an antecedent that is more than one person or object.

• George, Omar, and Phil were starving for lunch. They went to a Chinese buffet. [The plural pronoun they refers to the antecedent George, Omar, and Phil.] 

One tricky exception is “you.” In English, the pronoun “you” is the same whether it is singular or plural. Sometimes you can distinguish between the two by saying “you all” if you are speaking to more than one person. 

Gender Agreement

In some situations, pronouns need to be gender specific. The pronouns he, his, and him are masculine, whereas she, her, and hers are feminine. 

• Janice wanted to go to the mall. She wanted Scott to join her. He was not interested in going to the mall. [The pronouns she and her refer to the antecedent Janice. The pronoun he refers to the antecedent Scott.] 
• My dog Franklin is very skittish. He doesn’t enjoy the dog park. [The pronoun he refers to the antecedent Franklin.]

Gender-Neutral Pronouns

Gender-neutral pronouns include you, they, their, theirs, we, us, our, ours, your, and yours. In the case where the gender of the antecedent is unknown, the pronoun should be gender-neutral or avoided altogether. 

For example, take the general statement, “A student should hand his papers in promptly.” In this sentence, the word student does not indicate any gender, because it’s just a general, anonymous student. Therefore, rather than saying “his papers,” use one of the following:

• A student should hand papers in promptly. [Here, the gendered pronoun has been dropped, but the sentence is still grammatically correct.]
• Students should hand their papers in promptly. [By making the antecedent plural, you can use the gender-neutral plural pronoun their.]

4.7.3: Structural Parallelism Within a Sentence

Parallelism requires that similar ideas be presented in similar form.

Learning Objective

Give examples of parallel structure

Key Points

• Parallelism is when two or more elements of the same sentence have a similar structure.
• The most important parallel markers are the three most common conjunctions: and, but, and or.
• Parallelism requires that an article (a, an, or the) or a preposition applying to all members of a series must either appear before the first item only or be repeated before each item.

Key Term

parallelism

When two or more elements of the same sentence have a similar structure.

Parallelism

An unclear sentence rambles, drifting among unrelated topics in a haphazard and confusing fashion. Parallelism helps promote balance, emphasis, clarity, and readability. But what is parallelism?

Parallelism is when elements of a sentence “echo” each other because they have similar form or structure. Repeating key words can contribute to unity within an essay. Parallelism can be useful in many situations, but often we know that it will come in handy when we use words that link or contrast items, such as and, or, and but. 

Basic Form of Parallelism

• Nonparallel: Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and they wish they had time for a social life.
• Parallel: Students spend their time going to classes, studying, working, and wishing for a social life.
• Nonparallel: High-school students hope for short school days, or four-day weeks would be great, too.
• Parallel: High-school students hope for short school days or four-day weeks.

Using Articles with Parallelism 

Parallelism requires that an article (a, an, or the) or a preposition applying to all items in a list either appear before the first item only or be repeated before each item. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

• Nonparallel: We can pay with a mark, a yen, buck, or pound.
• Parallel: We can pay with a mark, a yen, a buck, or a pound.
• Nonparallel: I went to the store on Monday, Wednesday, and on Friday.
• Parallel: I went to the store on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.

Prepositions in Parallelism

Some words require that certain prepositions precede them. When such words appear in parallel structure, it is important to include all of the appropriate prepositions, since the first one may not apply to the whole series of items. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

• Nonparallel: His speech was marked by disagreement and scorn for his opponent’s position.
• Parallel: His speech was marked by disagreement with and scorn for his opponent’s position.
• Nonparallel: This is a time not for words but action.
• Parallel: This is a time not for words but for action.

Correlative Expressions

Correlative expressions are words that tend to show up in pairs. Sentences with correlative expressions (both/and; not/but; not only / but also; either/or; first, second, third …) should employ parallel structure as well. Simple rewriting can often remedy errors in these types of sentences. Here are a few examples of the rule in action:

• Nonparallel: Either you must grant her request or incur her ill will.
• Parallel: You must either grant her request or incur her ill will.
• Nonparallel: My objections are first, the injustice of the measure, and second, that it is unconstitutional.
• Parallel: My objections are first, that the measure is unjust, and second, that it is unconstitutional.

Using Logic to Determine Structure

In some instances, you must figure out which parts of the sentence are parallel in meaning before making them parallel in structure. Here is an example:

• Correct: Sal applied himself in his new job, arriving early every day, skipping lunch regularly, and leaving late every night.

In the sentence above, the -ing participle phrases (“arriving early every day,” “skipping lunch regularly,” and “leaving late every night”) are parallel. The main clause—”applied himself in his new job”—is not parallel to these participle phrases. This is because the main verb is “applied.” The -ing phrases simply provide additional information about how Sal applied himself. It would distort the meaning to change the sentence to this superficially parallel version:

• Incorrect: Sal applied himself in his new job, arrived early every day, skipped lunch regularly, and left late every night.

This version gives all the activities equal emphasis, instead of making the last three activities subordinate to the main activity (“applied himself in his new job”).