13.1: Introduction to Informative Speaking

13.1.1: Defining an Informative Speech

Learning Objective

Define an informative speech

Key Points

• This type of speech uses descriptions, demonstrations, vivid detail, and definitions to explain a subject, person, or place the audience wants to understand.
• An informative speech makes a complex topic easy to understand or offers a different point of view.
• Unlike persuasive speeches, an informative speech relies less on pathos and more on communicating information.

Key Terms

definition

A statement expressing the essential nature of something; formulation.

informative

Providing knowledge, especially useful or interesting information.

An informative speech is one that intends to educate the audience on a particular topic. There are many different types of informative speeches, including speeches that describe the conditions of a subject and speeches that instruct the audience on how to perform an action.

The main goal of an informative speech is to provide enlightenment regarding a specific topic the audience knows nothing about. It may demonstrate how to use a new type of software, explain a new concept in the field of science, describe an expedition an archaeologist took, or provide details about a person of interest that the audience wants to learn more about.

The topics covered in an informative speech should help the audience to understand a subject better and to remember what they learned later. The goal of this type of speech isn’t to sway the audience to the speaker’s point of view. Instead, the details need to be laid before the audience so that they can make an educated decision or learn about a subject they are interested in.

However, it is important for the speaker to think about how this information will be presented. An informative speech should rely less on pathos, which is an appeal to the emotions of the audience and an important component of persuasive speeches. Instead, an informative speech might rely on visual aids, for example, in order to give the audience a visual representation of important information contained in the speech. Providing the information in multiple forms during the speech increases the likelihood that the audience will retain the information included in the speech.

13.1.2: Types of Informative Speeches

Learning Objective

List the four types of informative speeches and describe their use

Key Points

• A descriptive speech helps the speaker create an accurate mental picture in the mind of the audience regarding a specific person, place, or thing.
• A demonstrative speech describes how to perform an action.
• An explanatory speech explains the state of a topic.
• A definition speech explains a concept or theory regarding a topic.

Key Terms

description

A sketch or account of anything in words; a portraiture or representation in language; an enumeration of the essential qualities of a thing or species.

definition

A statement expressing the essential nature of something; formulation.

An informative speech is one that informs the audience. However, as should be clear, this general definition demonstrates that there are many ways to inform an audience. Therefore, there are several types of informative speeches. The main types of informative speeches include definition, descriptive, explanatory, and demonstrative.

A definition speech explains the meaning, theory, or philosophy of a specific topic that the audience likely does not know much about. The topics may be general, such as a sport, or highly specific, like a particular person. The main goal of this speech is to educate the audience so that they understand the main points regarding this subject.

A demonstration speech explains how to do something. If you have ever sat through a lecture where a teacher explained how to create a bibliography, then you have heard a demonstration speech. Like most informative speeches, a how-to speech will likely use visual examples that show the audience how to move from step to step through a particular activity. Visualizations help the audience retain what each step looks like, increasing the likelihood that they will retain the overall information of the speech.

An explanatory speech might give a description of the state of a given topic. As an example, consider the types of speeches that are given at industry conferences. The goal of these speeches is for the speaker to inform the audience on a particular part of an industry. Commonly, these will also utilize visualizations that give the audience a visual representation of the particular data or statistics contained in the speech. This is one way to condense highly complex information into an easily retainable package for the audience.

A descriptive speech creates a vivid picture in a person’s mind regarding an object, person, animal, or place. An archaeologist who has discovered a new temple in South America or a paleontologist who believes they have found a new dinosaur may use a descriptive speech to inform an interested audience about their recent discoveries .

As all of these types make clear, there are many ways that a given set of information can be communicated in a speech. When deciding what type of informative speech you want to write and deliver, consider what you want the audience to know about your topic.

13.1.3: Subjects of Informative Speeches

Learning Objective

Name some examples of subjects of an informative speech

Key Points

• When choosing a subject of an informative speech consider whether you want to describe, explain, demonstrate or educate the audience about the topic.
• The subject of an informative speech should be one that can be communicated clearly to an audience.
• When choosing a subject for an informative speech, consider what is the essential information that an audience should know about that subject.

Key Term

subject

A particular area of study.

There are many different subjects that can be used in informative speeches. College lectures about an event in history or a historical figure would be considered informative speeches

Other examples of subjects for an informative speech include an actor or actress, the field of advertising, a classic film the history of Dracula, social networking websites, and what causes volcanoes.

Each of these examples lends itself to multiple types of information. For example, an informative speech about a particular actor or actress would likely focus on providing a description of who the person is and what movies or plays they have been in. Incorporating famous pictures or clips from works is a way of increasing the audience’s retention of the information about the particular person.

An informative speech about the causes of a volcano could be considered a how-it-happens speech, which could be similar to a how-to speech. A speech about volcanoes might include a model volcano, describing how the model’s functioning is similar to processes in the real world.

More technical subjects, such as the field of advertising, require more technical information and specific data relevant to the industry. Technical subjects especially, but really all informative speeches, benefit from the use of visualizations, such as bar graphs or images. The choice of visual aids depends on what information the speaker wants to inform the audience of. For example, a speech that intends to explore the financial trends of political advertising over ten years would benefit from a bar graph. However, a speech that is informing the audience on how political advertisements have functionally changed over time would benefit from actual examples of ad campaigns.

In order to differentiate an informative speech from other types of speeches, it is important to stick to the basic facts of the subject. No personal biases, unsubstantiated information, or popular opinion should be included when stating the main ideas of the topic. The goal is to educate the audience on the facts, not to provide the speaker’s opinion. When crafting an informative speech look at the subject carefully and eliminate any potential statements that have prejudice or might persuade the audience.

18.1: Working in Groups

18.1.1: Leadership in Groups

Learning Objective

Describe the qualities of effective leadership in groups

Key Points

• There are three main leadership styles: Laissez-faire, Democratic, and Authoritarian. A leader’s style and involvement may fall anywhere along the continuum.
• It is the group leader’s job to unite group members in working toward a common goal, keep them motivated, diffuse conflict, and ultimately deliver success.
• Excellent communication can be the key to successful group work. When messages are properly understood and all group members feel they are being heard, the group’s goal can more easily be accomplished and conflict is less likely.

Key Terms

continuum

a continuous series or whole, no part of which is noticeably different from its adjacent parts, although the ends or extremes of it are very different from each other

rapport

a relationship of mutual trust and respect

Example

• This photo of civil rights leaders with President Johnson shows several examples of leadership.

Leadership Overview

There are many essential elements to being an effective leader. A group leader must be responsible for not only participating in the group and ensuring that the group’s goal is attained, but also for motivating the team, delivering success, and being a resource that group members can reach out to for help.

Leadership Continuum

Leaders are usually categorized along a continuum, at one end of which lies the Laissez-faire leader, in the middle the Democratic leader, and at the other end the Authoritarian leader.

Laissez-faire is French for “let do.” A Laissez-faire leader takes a laid back or hands-off approach. This style may be most effective in a highly skilled and motivated group, or in order to foster creativity and participation. However, if a group is in need of direction, then a laissez-faire style may result in frustration and inefficiency.

An Authoritarian leader is one in which a leader attempts to exert maximum control over a group. This leadership style may be beneficial when a group is lost and disorganized or there are significant time pressures. However total control can also lead to group tensions or resentment of the leader and group members are also not likely to stay committed to the project as they feel they have no part in the decision making process.

The Democratic style of leadership falls somewhere in between Laissez-faire and Authoritarian styles. A Democratic leader will allow the decision-making power to be shared amongst group members and not only themselves. At the same time, a Democratic leader will facilitate discussions and lead the group in right direction.

Recently, leadership theories have emphasized the importance of leaders who cultivate positive, mutual relationships within their groups rather than step back too much from the team or dictate the flow of work. The leader must know each member of the team as well as the team as a whole in order to bring them all together. An effective leader uses each member’s contributions and energy to focus on a common goal.

Group Leadership

Communication is one of the most important aspects of working successfully in a group setting. Therefore, good communication skills are an essential quality for a good leader. Communicating is always difficult in a group, but these difficulties can be magnified by factors such as large group sizes, strong personalities, or differences in opinion.

When working in a group, it is important to have a common goal around which group members can unite. This is something on which all group members can agree and which they all desire to work toward. When leaders find that they have particularly strong-willed group members who seem to dominate the conversations, or several group members who do not seem to get along, communication can often be the key to resolving the conflict.

In these situations, effective communication techniques include discussing the conflict openly with the members involved, providing a more structured discussion forum so all members can be heard, or even engaging group members in non-project related bonding activities such as ice-breaking games, a group lunch, or a fun outing.

Technology is now a great resource for effective group communication. Technology is a great way for large groups to share their ideas. Often, groups can become so large that it is difficult for all the members to meet at the same time and place. Additionally, in large groups it can be difficult to allow everyone’s ideas to be heard. Through various platforms such as email, Google Groups, Blackboard, Facebook, and others, it is possible for group members to share their ideas in an organized manner so they can be read by others at their own leisure.

While leadership styles may vary with person and situation, it is always important for leaders to remember their role in the group. Effective leaders both participate in the group and work to achieve the overall goal of the group, guiding members in the right direction. Effective leaders will build mutually respectful relationships with their group members. Having a rapport with group members allows leaders to better understand members’ actions and increase their cooperation. Finally, effective leaders facilitate excellent communication amongst the group. Great communication leads to better and more effective idea generation and less conflict overall.

18.1.2: Responsibilities in Group Work

Learning Objective

Describe the typical roles and responsibilities of group members

Key Points

• Assigning group members roles can help alleviate uncertainty about expected responsibilities and help keep the group on task such as leader, scribe, devil’s advocate, and tracking lessons learned.
• Group member responsibilities include holding themselves accountable, participating in group activities to achieve the overall goal, and respecting all members of the group.
• Each group member has something uniquely valuable to bring to the table. Allowing group members to use their strengths and bring their individual knowledge and backgrounds to the project will allow the group to function to its full potential.

Key Term

group think

A process of reasoning or decision – making by a group, especially one characterized by uncritical acceptance or conformity to a perceived majority view.

Responsibilities in Group Work

When participating in group work, every member of the team has a responsibility to the group and the project. If each member does not participate, contribute, and deliver results, the group will ultimately fail to achieve their goal. Collaboration becomes effective only when group member participation is balanced .

Everyone in a group must learn to hold themselves accountable and be accountable to the other people in their group. Without accountability, work will not get done, deadlines will not be met, and the group will not be able to reach its goal. Individual and group accountability means that no one student has to do all the work. Accountability means not only being accountable for the physical work that a group member must deliver, but also attendance to group meetings, conduct, and behavior towards other group members, etc. It is also important to remember that group members are diverse and each one has a different strength and perspective to bring to the project based on their backgrounds, learning style, experiences, and aspirations.

Typical Roles in a Group

While everyone should be responsible for brain storming, problem solving, and providing their experience and knowledge, sometimes it can be helpful to assign group member specific roles. That way, members know exactly what they are responsible for. Four roles that are commonly found in groups are: a leader, a scribe, a lessons learned tracker, and a devil’s advocate.

• Leader – In the event there is no clear chain of command, a team must be prepared to assign the role of leader. A leader can keep the team focused, mediate conflicts, and ensure that individuals are held accountable.
• Note taker or scribe – again, a simple idea, but documenting every meeting is an important step in developing a productive team. A scribe can quickly get a team up to date with past notes so little time is wasted remembering where you left off. Documenting and distributing notes from each meeting will equally inform all team members.
• Lessons Learned tracker – Identify one person to track both positive and negative outcomes of meetings and projects. This individual can solicit input from other members. By documenting what everyone thinks went well and why and what did not go well and why, can keep a team productive by not repeating past mistakes.
• Devil’s Advocate – Teams need to embrace conflict and different points of view. By assigning a devil’s advocate, this person can freely bring up alternatives or objections, making the team more objective.

By assigning these roles to members of the group, it can increase efficiency and productivity. The group now has people in specific roles to help them stay on track and the group members can now clearly outline their responsibilities in regards to the group work.

Characteristics of Great Group Members

Characteristics of great group members are those who actively participate, respect all other members, can both learn from other members and teach them, values other’s contributions, draws on their own unique past experience and knowledge, and feels a sense of ownership over the project. To strive to embody all of these characteristics is the responsibility of all group members, regardless of their assigned role.

Responsibilities of Group Members

Group members are not only responsible for creating positive productivity within their group, but they must also avoid falling into the trap of unproductive behaviors that also arise in group settings. Group think and social loafing are two incredibly common negative phenomena that arise in group collaboration.

• Groupthink is simply going along with the team on a decision because that seems to be the consensus and they want to avoid conflict. Having a strong devil’s advocate will help reduce the chances of groupthink.
• Social loafing is someone that is putting forth less effort as a member of a group than they would as an individual. They are allowing the other members of the group to do the majority of the work with the intention of still reaping equal benefits. Again, leadership and holding people accountable is a great tool to deal with social loafing.

Working in groups can be challenging. Blending people from many different backgrounds, with different personalities styles and work ethics can make consensus difficult. However, when all group members take on their expected responsibilities, group work can become much more enjoyable and effective.

18.1.3: Reflective Thinking

Learning Objective

Explain how reflective thinking is used in group settings

Key Points

• Reflective thinking requires scientific analysis of a problem and using empirical knowledge to make decisions.
• According to John Dewey, a disciplined mind is necessary to gain knowledge and obtain true intellectual freedom.
• When group members use reflective thinking, they are able to use the scientific method to reach logical decisions and understand the strength of the group based on individual competencies.

Key Term

scientific method

A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based in making falsifiable predictions (hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that best explain the known data.

Reflective Thinking

Reflective thinking is using the scientific method to make a decision. This helps to create deep learning, which will enable the growth of an individual in many different aspects, including morally, emotionally, and cognitively. Reflective thinking helps to determine an individual’s strengths and weaknesses by allowing individuals to question values and beliefs, challenge assumptions, recognize biases, acknowledge fears, and find areas of improvement.

John Dewey and Critical Thinking

Dewey’s method of critical thinking involves a disciplined mind in order to gain knowledge . A disciplined mind needs intellectual control of the thinking process, which is so often emotionally based. This disciplined mind offers intellectual freedom, and discipline shouldn’t be viewed as a negative aspect as many individuals believe it to be.

Reflective Thinking in a Group Setting

Using reflective thinking in a group setting can allow for intellectual decisions based on defining a problem and using concepts based in logic to select the best solution. Group members will then be able to compare and contrast their colleagues’ interpretations of the project experience with their own. They can learn about the strengths and weaknesses of the group, as it is comprised of the competencies and assumptions of the individuals.

Reflective thinking about group work should cover ideas such as:

• What did I do well? What did the group do well?
• What could I improve on? What could the group improve on?
• What was one of the largest obstacles the group faced? Did did we overcome it? How?
• Was there group conflict? Was it resolved? How?
• Was our group successful? Did we complete our objective? Why or why not?
• What would we do differently if we were given the opportunity to repeat the project?

Reflective thinking is an excellent tool for identifying positive and negative aspects of a group work experience. By spending time seriously contemplating the overall process, both during and after the project, it is possible for group members to learn from their experience and work toward improving their group work skills for the future.

17.1: Speeches for Special Occasions

17.1.1: The Speech of Introduction

Learning Objective

Define an introduction speech

Key Points

• Introduction speeches are usually brief and always prepared in advance.
• If you know the person you’re introducing, it certainly makes it easier to prepare your remarks. However, be mindful of the context of your relationship to the speaker, and the context of the event itself. For example, avoid an overly casual tone when speaking at a formal event.
• If you don’t know the speaker, conduct some research to get a basic understanding of who they are, as well as any relevant work that applies to their keynote. To help you prepare, consider contacting the speaker in advance to request their professional biography or their curriculum vitae (CV).

Key Terms

curriculum vitae

A detailed written account of one’s education and experience used to seek positions in academic or educational environments, typically including academic credentials, publications, courses taught, etc.

introduction

A means of presenting one person to another.

keynote

A speech that sets the main theme of a conference or other gathering; a keynote speech or keynote address.

The Introduction Speech

Sometimes you may be asked to speak at an event or occasion before the headlining speech, or be called upon to introduce a keynote speaker or panelist.

The introduction speech is no less significant than the keynote. It’s important because you’re getting your audience warmed up and accustomed to who will be speaking about the topics and issues they care about. Just as we appreciate when friends introduce us to new acquaintances, your audience appreciates being introduced to their main speaker.

There may be times when you know the person that you’re introducing, so it might be easier to talk about them. Just be mindful of the context of both your relationship and the event itself. You might be buddies with a leading scientist in biology at a biology conference, but that doesn’t mean you should introduce him by the nicknames you call each other on Facebook.

Knowing the person you need to introduce is also helpful as you can ask them directly what information they would or would not like shared about them.

There will also be times where you may only have passing knowledge about the person you’re introducing, or perhaps you might not know anything about them at all. But in the age of the Internet and the Google search, it shouldn’t take very long to find out some basic information about them that is relevant to their speech, such as their professional experience or publications.

You may also be able to contact them to see if they can provide you with a professional bio or curriculum vitae (CV). In the latter instance, you may want to distill that into your own prepared remarks.

The good news is that speeches of introduction are usually brief and always prepared. Whether you’re reading from a script or teleprompter, you typically won’t be asked to introduce someone you don’t know without preparation.

17.1.2: The Speech of Presentation or Acceptance

Learning Objective

Discuss how to prepare an acceptance speech

Key Points

• If you’ve been nominated or won a particular award or honor, always prepare an acceptance speech so you don’t fumble your words once on stage.
• In an acceptance speech, always thank the award-giver, be they an individual or an organization. Don’t forget to thank anyone who helped you achieve your honor, either.
• Speeches of presentation introduce the award itself, tell a little about its history and meaning, and introduce and name the actual awardee.

Key Term

humble

Not proud, arrogant, or assuming; modest.

The Speech of Presentation or Acceptance

When you think of an acceptance speech, you might think of actress Sally Field clutching her Oscar award shouting into the microphone: “You like me! You really, really like me! “

Often, these speeches are far more humble.

Acceptance Speech

If you’ve been nominated for an award or honor, you may be asked to prepare some remarks in the event you win the award. Other times, you may know that you have won, making it substantially easier to prepare. Acceptance speeches may vary in length. For a multi-award event, such as the Academy Awards, winners are given a brief ninety seconds to make their remarks. At other times, a person could be the single awardee of the evening and have substantially more time to speak, often doubling as keynote speaker.

Acceptance speeches thank the awarding individual or organization. Depending on the award, the awardee may speak about their experience and emotions of getting that award or the work to achieve that award. If others have helped you in your endeavors, you may give them a quick thanks by name as well. If you’re partnered, you may thank your spouse, partner, or children. And if it’s a benefit for the Humane Society, it might even be appropriate to thank your pets!

Like any speech, consider your audience and the context of the speech. While being mindful of your time, get your thanks in while being gracious and humble.

Even if you are one of many in a field of nominees, it’s always a good idea to prepare an acceptance speech so that if you are named the winner, you won’t be fumbling for your words on stage.

Presentation Speech

Similar to the introductory speech, presentation speeches are typically prepared in advance and may describe the awardee before naming them, or describe the circumstances for their awarding.

If the award is named or in memory of someone, you may describe why that award was named in that person’s honor, such as the Pulitzer or Nobel Prize. You may talk about the criteria for selecting the award and how the awardee met that criteria for their specific work.

The speech of presentation is one that is particularly enjoyable to give, as the awardee is often honored to have received the award in the first place!

17.1.3: The Speech to Secure Goodwill

Learning Objective

Define a speech to secure goodwill

Key Points

• Goodwill speeches are both informative and persuasive. You seek to persuade your audience to be in favor of you and who or what you represent.
• Goodwill speeches highlight shared values, customs, beliefs, and morals.
• Goodwill speeches do not make assumptions or judgments about their audience and are not meant to intimidate, embarrass, or offend.
• One of the best examples of a goodwill speech is “Ich bin ein Berliner” (I am a Berliner) delivered by President John F. Kennedy in 1963.

Key Term

goodwill

A favorably disposed attitude toward someone or something.

The Speech to Secure Goodwill

Goodwill speeches seek to introduce oneself or an entity to another group, organization, or even country, while building a goodwill relationship with that audience. They may occur on a small scale such as through a maiden speech by the new CEO to a company, or on a large scale, e.g. a world leader touring another country.

Goodwill speeches are informative and persuasive. You are persuading your audience to consider you favorably. You will want to make the case about what makes you qualified or relevant to them. Goodwill speeches also often highlight shared customs, values, morals, and beliefs. Goodwill speeches do not make assumptions or judgments about their audience and do not intimidate, embarrass, or offend them.

Perhaps one of the most famous goodwill speeches was made by President John F. Kennedy in 1963 in Berlin, Germany. Often referred to as “Ich bin ein Berliner” speech (“I am a Berliner”), the speech discusses how to build rapport and favorable attitudes between two differing nations (as excerpted below):

I am proud to come to this city as the guest of your distinguished Mayor, who has symbolized throughout the world the fighting spirit of West Berlin. And I am proud to visit the Federal Republic with your distinguished Chancellor who for so many years has committed Germany to democracy and freedom and progress, and to come here in the company of my fellow American, General Clay, who has been in this city during its great moments of crisis and will come again if ever needed…

…You live in a defended island of freedom, but your life is part of the main. So let me ask you, as I close, to lift your eyes beyond the dangers of today, to the hopes of tomorrow, beyond the freedom merely of this city of Berlin, or your country of Germany, to the advance of freedom everywhere, beyond the wall to the day of peace with justice, beyond yourselves and ourselves to all mankind.

Freedom is indivisible, and when one man is enslaved, all are not free. When all are free, then we can look forward to that day when this city will be joined as one and this country and this great Continent of Europe in a peaceful and hopeful globe. When that day finally comes, as it will, the people of West Berlin can take sober satisfaction in the fact that they were in the front lines for almost two decades.

All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin.

And, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words, “Ich bin ein Berliner. “

17.1.4: Commemorative Speeches: Dedications and Eulogies

Learning Objective

Identify types of commemorative speeches

Key Points

• Dedications may honor an individual, a group of individuals, or a specific event.
• Eulogies honor a specific deceased person, celebrating the life he lived rather than mulling on the manner or circumstances of their death.
• It is entirely acceptable for speech givers to become emotional when delivering these types of speeches (especially eulogies) as they can evoke strong emotions with both speaker and audience.

Key Terms

dedication

A ceremony marking an official completion or opening.

eulogy

An oration to honor a deceased person, usually at a funeral.

commemorate

To honor the memory of someone or something with a ceremony.

The Commemorative Speech

Commemorative speeches are those that celebrate and honor the memory of someone or something. If you consider various memorial holidays and observances throughout the year, such a Memorial Day in the United States, many people commemorate the occasion by remembering fallen veterans. In England, the English commemorate their fallen heroes by wearing poppies on Remembrance Day.

The Dedication

The dedication is a very specific type of commemorative speech. It is often accompanied by a ceremony accompanying an official opening or completion of something. The speech honors the event, individual or groups of people to which the items are being dedicated. Take for example, the dedication of the National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in 1863, by then President Abraham Lincoln:

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate—we cannot consecrate—we cannot hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

The Eulogy

A eulogy is a very specific type of commemorative speech that occurs at a person’s funeral. Where a dedication may commemorate an event, an eulogy commemorates a specific deceased person. Eulogies may include memories and anecdotes of that person’s life. Rather than focusing on how or why a person died, the eulogy celebrates the life he lived. It can be extremely emotionally difficult to deliver a eulogy for a friend or family member. In many circles, it is often expected that the eulogy reader may cry or become upset while speaking as they remember their loved one.

President Lincoln was remembered by Josiah Gilbert Holland, on the occasion of his funeral in 1865:

Our President is dead. He has served us faithfully and well. He has kept the faith; he has finished his course. Henceforth there is laid up for him a crown of glory, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, shall give him in that day. And He who gave him to us, and who so abundantly blest his labors, and helped him to accomplish so much for his country and his race, will not permit the country which He saved to perish. I believe in the overruling providence of God, and that, in permitting the life of our Chief Magistrate to be extinguished, He only closed one volume of the history of His dealings with this nation, to open another whose pages shall be illustrated with fresh developments of His love and sweeter signs of His mercy. What Mr. Lincoln achieved he achieved for us; but he left as a choice a legacy in his Christian example, in his incorruptible integrity, and in his unaffected simplicity, if we will appropriate it, as in his public deeds. So we take this excellent life and its results, and, thanking God for them, cease all complaining and press forward under new leaders to now achievements, and the completion of the great work which he who has gone left as a sacred trust upon our hands.

17.1.5: The Inspirational Speech

Learning Objective

Define an inspirational speech

Key Points

• Inspirational speakers are often characterized as warm, encouraging and able to connect and engage almost instantly with their audiences.
• Inspirational speeches elicit strong emotional responses from their audiences.
• Not all inspirational speeches must be geared toward positive or happy messages; many times, these speeches are often used in “rally the troops” situations.

Key Term

inspire

To infuse into the mind; to communicate to the spirit; to convey, as by a divine or supernatural influence; to disclose preternaturally; to produce in, as by inspiration.

Example

• In the movie Braveheart, William Wallace (played by Mel Gibson) delivers this rousing and classic inspirational speech to Scots about to fight the English troops: “I AM William Wallace. And I see a whole army of my countrymen here in defiance of tyranny. You have come to fight as free men, and free men you are. What would you do without freedom? Will you fight? Aye, fight and you may die. Run and you’ll live — at least a while. And dying in your beds many years from now, would you be willing to trade all the days from this day to that for one chance, just one chance to come back here and tell our enemies that they may take our lives, but they’ll never take our freedom! “

The Inspirational Speech

When we think of the word “inspire,” we typically think of motivational and rousing ideas and imagery. In a very literal sense, inspiration is a synonym of the biological function of inhalation: by inspiring, we take air into our lungs.

It only makes sense then, that inspirational words, images and situations cause our chests to swell with pride, excitement or even anger. Inspiration can elicit extreme emotional responses within us. As such, the inspirational speech is one that can elicit those same strong emotional responses within our audiences, no matter their size.

Some of the most famous inspirational speeches in history include Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” and President John F. Kennedy’s inauguration speech. A modern day example could be President Barack Obama’s “Yes We Can” campaign stump speech made in 2008.

The power of these speeches lies in the rousing words and imagery that capitalize on the emotional response of their audiences. Inspirational speakers are often characterized as warm, encouraging, and able to instantly connect and engage with their audiences.

But not all messages are necessarily warm and fuzzy; take for example, the speech made popular by actor Mel Gibson as William Wallace in the film, Braveheart, as he motivates his ragtag band of Scotsmen to fight against the English troops:

Wallace: Sons of Scotland, I am William Wallace.

Young soldier: William Wallace is 7 feet tall.

Wallace: Yes, I’ve heard. Kills men by the hundreds, and if he were here he’d consume the English with fireballs from his eyes and bolts of lightning from his arse. I AM William Wallace. And I see a whole army of my countrymen here in defiance of tyranny. You have come to fight as free men, and free men you are. What would you do without freedom? Will you fight?

Veteran soldier: Fight? Against that? No, we will run; and we will live.

Wallace: Aye, fight and you may die. Run and you’ll live–at least a while. And dying in your beds many years from now, would you be willing to trade all the days from this day to that for one chance, just one chance to come back here and tell our enemies that they may take our lives, but they’ll never take our freedom!

Wallace and Soldiers: Alba gu bra! (Scotland forever! )

The successful inspirational speech is one that is memorable, truly inspiring, and one that can stand the test of time.

17.1.6: Other Speeches: Farewells, Toasts, and After-Dinner Remarks

Learning Objective

Distinguish a light speech such as a farewell, toast, or after dinner remark from other types of public speaking

Key Points

• Farewells, toasts, and after dinner remarks typically require much less preparation than formal speeches.
• Farewells, toasts, and after dinner remarks often use humor and anecdote to entertain a crowd and/or celebrate a guest or guests of honor.
• It’s okay to poke fun at the guest of honor, but the goal is to entertain, not humiliate.
• Brevity is an artform and a gift when it comes to informal speeches like these.

Key Terms

farewell

a wish of happiness or welfare at parting, especially a permanent departure; the parting compliment; a goodbye; adieu.

roast

(Originally fraternal) a comical event where a person is subjected to verbal attack, yet may be praised by sarcasm and jokes.

toast

to engage in a salutation and/or accompanying raising of glasses while drinking alcohol (or other appropriate beverage) in honor of someone or something.

Farewells, Toasts, and After-Dinner Remarks

Special occasion speeches are, to put it lightly, the “life of the party” when it comes to public speaking. Farewells, toasts, and after dinner remarks are often the lightest of public speaking fare, requiring little in preparation or execution. Humor, anecdote, and brevity are notable qualities of these types of speeches. Still, like any public speaking experience, it helps to be familiar with your subject and able to prepare, even if briefly beforehand.

Many times, these speeches are not written extensively prior to the speaking engagement. You may jot down a few key talking points or maybe a specific joke or anecdote that you wish to include.

Like preparing for any speech, regardless of formality, consider the audience, venue, and occasion for which you’re speaking. It’s also particularly helpful, especially for wedding toasts, to consider the span of ages in the room. If there is a particularly older or younger crowd, you may need to tailor your material accordingly so that all audience members can relate.

Many times, farewells, toasts, and after dinner speeches are made in honor or in celebration of someone else: a guest or guests of honor, or perhaps the event host or hostess themselves. While it’s acceptable to poke fun, make sure you do so in a way that’s kind and not cruel. Unless you’re specifically giving remarks for a full on roast, you shouldn’t overly embarrass your guest of honor. You’re there to entertain, not humiliate.

It’s important to remember that brevity is your friend in all of these situations: no one likes a toast that goes on forever while the champagne bubbles go flat. To quote Esenwein and Carnagey, authors of The Art of Public Speaking:

Blessed is the man that maketh short speeches, for he shall be invited to speak again.

16.1: The Value of Sensory Enhancements

16.1.1: Improve Listener Engagement, Comprehension, and Memory

Learning Objective

Discuss how sensory enhancements can improve listener engagement, comprehension, and memory

Key Points

• Listeners will be more engaged if you tailor your sensory enhancements to them and add value with pictures, graphs, and other visually appealing items.
• Sensory enhancements improve comprehension through the process of repeating the information both visually and audibly.
• The repetition of information through a sensory enhancement and in your speech will help the audience remember your presentation.

Key Term

engage

To engross or hold the attention of (someone); to keep busy or occupied.

Example

• Engage your audience by taking into account their goals and motivations. For example, the details that you share about an organization’s financial status will differ depending on whether your audience is a tax inspector, an external auditor, the community of beneficiaries or the new employees.

Improving engagement, comprehension, and memory of your presentation can be accomplished by using sensory enhancements, or visual aids. Sensory enhancements allow the audience members to break up the presentation into memorable chunks that are more easily understood than if the presentation had not included visual aids.

Improving Listener Engagement through Sensory Enhancements

• Listeners will be more engaged if you understand your audience and tailor your sensory enhancements to them. For example, if you are presenting to a group that may have a shorter attention span, such as teenagers or young adults, you will want to use sensory enhancements with pictures and colors rather than additional text.
• Visual aids help audience members follow the structure and flow of your presentation. They will also help audience members pay attention, as it is easier to engage with visuals rather than simply with words .
• Use engaging anecdotes, quotes, and examples as a part of your visual aid. Stories and quotes help to break up your presentation, and will also help audience members to maintain their engagement in your presentation. Outlining these stories in your visual aids will help the audience remember and apply these stories.

Improving Listener Comprehension through Repetition and Sensory Enhancements

Listener comprehension can be greatly improved through repetition, as it allows the audience to mentally rehearse and process information a second time, both visually and audibly. This is most effective when a sensory enhancement is used as a method of repeating an idea. For example, if a speaker uses a story to explain a concept and has a visual aid related to the story, the audience member will process both the visual aid and the story, and will be more likely to understand the concepts the speaker is presenting.

Improving Listener Memory through Sensory Enhancements

Sensory enhancements are also a powerful way of enhancing the memory of your audience. This is accomplished through the repetition of the information presented to the audience member. If a speaker discusses the idea and then uses a visual aid to help the audience understand that idea, the audience member will think about and process this idea twice rather than just once. This will result in the audience member being more likely to remember the idea. Similarly, a visual aid will act as a cue for the audience to remember a story or concept that the speaker is explaining. The visual cue will more easily remind the audience of the concept than a simple explanation in words.

16.1.2: Choosing the Right Visual Aid

Learning Objective

Discuss how to choose the appropriate visual aid for presentations

Key Points

• Visual aids should support, clarify, and amplify, not repeat what you are saying. In order to make sure that the intent of your visual aid is clear try to use only important or memorable words or phrases.
• It is important to consider if your visual can be seen and understood by the member of your audience who is farthest from the screen when choosing to use it. In order to do this test out your visual aids in different environments.
• Visual Communication relies on vision, and is primarily presented or expressed with two dimensional images. A visual message accompanying text has a greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a person or audience.

Key Term

Visual Communication

The communication through visual aid and the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon.

Example

• Avoid passing hard copies of your visual aids around to the audience. Do try to provide interactive aspects into your visual aids that involve the audience such as polls, feedback requests, and interactive activities.

Choosing the Right Visual Aid

Visual Communication relies on vision, and is primarily presented or expressed with two dimensional images. These may include the following:

• Typography
• Drawing
• Graphic design
• Illustration
• Color
• Electronic resources

It also explores the idea that a visual message accompanying text has a greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a person or audience. One way to make your presentation vivid and memorable is through the use of visual aids. Although computer generated and projected visual—and presentation—aids are commonly used, it is still important to understand how to use them or any other type of visual aids in your presentation.

There are many different types of visual aids. The type of visual aid a speaker uses depends on his preference and the information he is trying to present. In order to determine the type of visual aid to use, begin by writing your outline first, focusing on the main points of your presentation and taking into consideration your audience and any cultural contexts. Select visual aids that are appropriate to the point that you wish to illustrate or clarify. Visual aids should support, clarify, and amplify, not repeat what you are saying. In order to make sure that the intent of your visual aid is clear, try to use only important or memorable words or phrases. For example, eliminate any unnecessary word slides or overcrowding of visual aids. Pictorial slides and appropriate color usage have the biggest impact.

It is important to consider if your visual aid can be seen and understood by the member of your audience who is farthest from the screen when choosing to use it. In order to do this, test out your visual aids in different environments. Practice with your visual aid when going through your presentation for timing and familiarity. Try to avoid beginning or ending your presentation with a visual aid unless it is key in opening your presentation or making a significant point. Introduce visual aids so that they blend smoothly with your speech and highlight your main points or provide clarity to examples. It is important to maintain eye contact; talk to your audience, not the visual aid throughout your presentation. Practice going through your presentation and coordinating your points with your visual aids when discussing them. Avoid passing hard copies of your visual aids around to the audience as it is often a distraction. Do try to provide interactive aspects into your visual aids that involve the audience such as polls, feedback requests, and interactive activities.

Here are some examples of visual aids:

• Photographs
• Drawings or diagrams
• Graphs
• Display charts
• Video excerpts

16.1.3: The Importance of Preparation

Learning Objective

Indicate what factors speakers should consider when selecting and preparing visual aids

Key Points

• In preparing your visual aids, you should consider three important components: Are your visual aids appropriate for your audience? Are your visual aids easy to understand and easy to read or view? Do you know what is on your visual aids and can you present them effectively?
• When creating a visual aid, make sure to consider the knowledge base, demographic background, occupation, and values of your audience.
• Be sure to use text that is large enough (size 16 point font is a suggested minimum) and colors that do not conflict with one another. This ensures that words are legible.
• An essential component of using visual aids effectively is to prepare yourself in understanding what is on them and determining how you want to explain them.

Key Term

demographic

A characteristic used to classify people for statistical purposes, such as age, race, or gender.

Example

• Make sure to consider the knowledge base, demographic background, occupation, and values of your audience when creating a visual aid. For example, you may not want to use examples and images that one generation or age group may not understand.

Appropriate preparation of your visual aids is essential in making sure that they are effective in helping to improve the engagement, memory, and comprehension of your audience. In preparing your visual aids, you should consider three important components:

• Are your visual aids appropriate for your audience?
• Are your visual aids easy to understand and easy to read or view?
• Do you know what is on your visual aids and can you present them effectively?

Are your visual aids appropriate for your audience?

Once your topic has been decided upon and your research is underway, it’s time to think about how you plan to present your information in visual aids. Of the several angles that need to be addressed in regards to delivering a speech, the most important thing to keep in mind is, “Who is my audience? ” Never underestimate the importance of knowing your audience. If your audience can’t understand your visuals, you’ll find it much harder to accomplish your objective.

Make sure to consider the knowledge base, demographic background, occupation, and values of your audience when creating a visual aid. For example, you may not want to use examples and images that one generation or age group may not understand. Your decision to use visual aids such as PowerPoint, charts, or any kind of demonstrative props will have a sizable impact on your audience, so they should be given careful thought.

Are your visual aids easy to understand and easy to read or view?

When you are preparing your visual aids, you should make sure that your audience will be able to read and understand what they are saying. Be sure to use text that is large enough (size 16 point font is a suggested minimum) and colors that do not conflict with one another. This ensures that words are legible. Make sure that any photos, charts, and diagrams are easily understood within the first few seconds of looking at them. If they are not easily understood, be sure to spend time during your presentation explaining what the photos or charts mean.

Additionally, one way to make sure that people in the back of the presentation can read your visual aids is to print off a full page slide of your presentation, place it on the floor and stand up and see if you can read the entire slide. If you cannot read it, people in the back of the room during your presentation will also likely not be able to read your slide. One other consideration is to be sure that you are comfortable using any technology that you will use to assist the presentation of your visual aids. You must also make sure that the location of your presentation has this working technology available to you.

Do you know what is on your visual aids and can you present them effectively?

An essential component of using visual aids effectively is to prepare yourself in understanding what is on them and determining how you want to explain them. If you are using pictures, graphs, or charts to help you explain a point, be sure that you understand the graph or picture and you are comfortable explaining this to an audience. If you are confused about a graph during your presentation, or do not do an adequate job of explaining a graph, your audience will also likely be confused about the graph as well. Such confusion will detract from audience engagement and comprehension.

Before you present, go through your graph, charts, and pictures. In your notes, write where each visual aid is presented in your presentation, what they mean, and how you plan to present them. Be sure to rehearse this before your presentation so your visual aids can be as effective in helping your audience be engaged, understand your presentation, and remember your key points.

15.1: Getting the Most Out of a Persuasive Speech

15.1.1: Expect Selective Exposure

Learning Objective

Define selective exposure and explain its relation to persuasive speaking

Key Points

• The selective exposure theory is a concept that refers to individuals’ tendency to favor information that reinforces pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information.
• Selective exposure operates by reinforcing beliefs rather than exposing individuals to a diverse array of viewpoints.
• Perceived usefulness of information, perceived norm of fairness, and curiosity regarding valuable information are three factors that can counteract selective exposure.

Key Terms

selective exposure

The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and communication research that refers to individuals’ tendency to favor information that reinforces pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information.

audience

A group of people within hearing; specifically a group of people listening to a performance, speech etc.; the crowd seeing a stage performance.

Introduction

The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and communication research that refers to individuals’ tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding contradictory information. This theory suggests that people tend to select specific aspects of exposed information based on their perspective, beliefs, attitudes, and decisions. People can determine the information exposed to them and select favorable evidence, while ignoring the unfavorable.

This theory has been explored using the cognitive dissonance theory, which suggests information consumers strive for results of cognitive equilibrium. In order to attain this equilibrium, individuals may either reinterpret the information they are exposed to or select information that is consonant with their view.

The premise of selective exposure relies on the assumption that information-seeking behavior continues even after an individual has taken a stance on an issue. Previous information-seeking behavior will be colored by various factors of the issue that is activated during the decision-making process. Thus, selective exposure operates by reinforcing beliefs rather than exposing individuals to a diverse array of viewpoints, which is considered an important aspect of a functioning democracy.

There are several factors that persuade one when making decisions. Physical characteristics, age, and more hold power to sway perception, luring people into habits of selective exposure. People often stray away from new information because it conflicts with their own beliefs; because information and resources are critical to learning this habit cripples the ability to learn new concepts and skills.

Selective exposure influences and family, friends, co-workers, even skilled professionals like doctors. Media forms such as the internet, television, and paper sources are also inclined to selective bias.

Selective exposure has been demonstrated in various contexts such as self-serving situations and situations where people hold prejudices regarding out-groups, particular opinions, and personal and group-related issues. The perceived usefulness of information, perceived norms of fairness, and curiosity regarding valuable information are three factors that can counteract selective exposure. Remember this as your prepare your persuasive speech.

How does selective exposure theory affect decision-making?

Selective exposure can affect the decisions people make because people may not be willing to change their views and beliefs. Changing beliefs about one’s self, other people, and the world are all challenges that cause people to fear new information.

A variety of studies have shown that selective exposure effects can occur in context of both individual and group decision making.

Selective exposure can interfere or prevent the gathering of new information. Selective exposure is prevalent in both groups of people and individually. In Jonas et al. (2001) empirical studies were done on four different experiments investigating individuals’ and groups’ decision making. This article suggests that confirmation bias is prevalent in decision making.

Those who find new information often draw their attention to areas where they hold some personal attachment. Thus, information that supports the expectations or beliefs held by the person draw greater attention, in keeping with selective exposure theory. Throughout the four experiments, generalization was reliably considered valid and confirmation bias was always present when test subjects sought new information and made decisions.

Tips for the Speaker

Be prepared. Like it or not, you are going to face selective exposure from your audience as you try to persuade them to accept your stance. When preparing your speech, remember that perceived usefulness of information, perceived norm of fairness, and curiosity regarding valuable information can counteract selective exposure.

15.1.2: Don’t Expect Too Much

Learning Objective

Modify your expectations for your speech and your performance

Key Points

• The expected effectiveness of each speech depends on a number of factors, such as the audience, venue, time allotted, and the speaker’s experience.
• The expected quality of the delivery depends on the speaker’s experience and comfort. Even the most gifted speakers make mistakes, so expecting perfection from a novice is unreasonable.
• Anxiety of public speaking sometimes is derived from the idea that the audience expects perfection. In reality, most audiences are sympathetic and want the speaker to succeed.

Key Term

persuasion

the process aimed at changing a person’s (or a group’s) attitude or behavior

Persuasion is the influence of beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviors to convince an audience of something. A persuasive speech should move the audience further along the pathway to believing that the espoused point of view is correct, but not all views can be explained in one speech and not every audience can be swayed at once.

The expectations of each persuasive speech should be tailored to the context of the speech. Factors such as the speech itself, the audience, the venue, the time allotted, and the speaker’s experience all need to be considered. For example, if you are not a doctor but are asked to give a five minute speech to the American Heart Association about why fast food is the best food for heart health, your chances of persuading everyone is pretty low. Even if you are the expert in the room, not everyone will be persuaded because each person requires different processes to be convinced. The purpose of the persuasive speech is to get the audience to think about your point of view and to accept some of the vital points, not necessarily to make them buy everything you’re selling.

Similarly, the expectations for the delivery of the speech should not be set too high. For a novice speaker to expect that he/she will never mispronounce a word, get nervous, or skip a paragraph is unreasonable. Every speaker goes through the process of making mistakes, and few, if any, speakers ever deliver a perfect speech. The expected quality of the delivery of the speech depends on each individual speaker’s experience and comfort level, though even the most gifted orators make mistakes.

Some of the anxiousness that often accompanies preparing for a speech is derived from the idea that the audience expects perfection. However, the surprising truth is that, in most cases, the audience is a sympathetic friend. Whether or not the audience knows who you are, human nature dictates that they are very sympathetic to you and what you have to say. Most people appreciate the difficulty of your role, understand that you have something to say, and want the time they spend listening to you to be worthwhile. In other words, before you start speaking, most audiences have a vested interest in wanting you to succeed, and that translates into an attentive, supportive group.

15.1.3: Employ Empathy and Sensitivity

Learning Objective

List the benefits and drawbacks of using an emotional appeal in your speech

Key Points

• Appeals to empathy and sensitivity are called emotional appeals. Emotional appeals seek to impart certain feelings in the audience so that they will act a certain way. They can be much more powerful than logical arguments in some situations.
• To deploy an emotional appeal you need to share carefully selected information that naturally makes your audience feel a certain way.
• Audiences can sense inauthentic emotional appeals and react negatively because they feel that they are being negatively. Poorly used emotional appeals can have the exact opposite effect than intended.

Key Term

emotional appeal

An an attempt to make the audience feel certain emotions so that they will be more likely to be engaged by the speech. Also known as pathos.

Appealing to the empathy and sensitivity of the audience is broadly termed an emotional appeal. Emotional appeals can be a powerful rhetorical element of a persuasive speech. They are an attempt to make the audience feel something, and in the process, be persuaded by the speech . A crowd that is feeling something is much more likely to be engaged, give consideration to your arguments, and remember the speech.

Appeals to empathy and sensitivity can create a sense of connection and trust between you and the audience. Since trust and connection are vital elements of being able to persuade an audience, emotional appeals can be incredibly useful.

However, emotional appeals can also backfire if used incorrectly. If taken too far, an appeal to emotion can seem to be forced. Audiences can tell the difference between an honest emotional appeal and an attempt is to manipulate how they feel. Audiences loathe feeling manipulated, so an audience that senses inauthentic motives will strongly reject both the appeal and the speaker.

When the emotional appeal is both authentic and appropriately used, you can develop a much stronger connection to your audience than by using logic alone. However, to misuse an emotional appeal is to completely alienate your audience, and even foster negative feelings.

15.1.4: Using Different Kinds of Appeals

Learning Objective

Identify the two most prevalent kinds of appeals

Key Points

• Aristotle defined 3 types of appeals: logos (evidential), pathos (emotional), and ethos (based on moral standing). Logos and pathos are the two most common contemporary categories.
• Evidential appeals (logical appeals, logos) are based entirely on evidence that is then shown to cause a certain outcome based on rationality alone. This is the type of appeal allowed in scientific research and in courts of law.
• Emotional appeals (pathos) attempt to cause the audience to feel certain emotions in order to persuade them. Stories and metaphors are examples of emotional appeals.

Key Terms

evidential appeal

An attempt to show the logical connection between a set of evidence and a consequence. Also known as logical appeal or logos.

emotional appeal

An an attempt to make the audience feel certain emotions so that they will be more likely to be engaged by the speech. Also known as pathos.

Use Different Kinds of Appeals

According to Aristotle, there are three primary types of appeals:

1. Logos: A logical appeal. Also known as an evidential appeal.
2. Pathos: An appeal to the audience’s emotions.
3. Ethos: Moral expertise and knowledge.

For the purposes of this section, we will explore the two broadest and prevalent appeals, logos and pathos.

Logos (Evidential or Logical Appeal)

From a rationalist’s point of view, evidential appeals are the only type of appeal that truly matter. Evidential appeals are formed by defining the evidence and then explaining how the evidence must logically prove that a certain conclusion must be true. Evidential appeals are the only type of persuasive speech allowed in a court of law; the evidence must prove that the defendant has committed the crime in order for that person to be found guilty .

Evidential appeals are also the basis for scientific research. A scientist must be able to show the connection between evidence and a conclusion in order for his/her work to be accepted. In persuasive speaking, the speaker must first explain the evidence in a way that is comprehensible to the audience, yet complete. Then the scientist must explain how that evidence logically leads to a consequence that supports his/her proposal.

Pathos (Emotional Appeal)

An emotional appeal is intended to cause the audience to feel a certain way so that they will be convinced by the speaker. Emotional appeals can manifest in a number of ways. Metaphors, stories, and passionate delivery are all emotional appeals because their effectiveness lies not only in the words, but in the emotions they evoke in the audience. Ultimately, the effectiveness of an emotional appeal is determined only by the audience. If the audience does not feel the intended emotions, by definition, the appeal has failed.

14.1: Introduction to Persuasive Speaking

14.1.1: Defining a Persuasive Speech

Learning Objective

Identify the qualities of a persuasive speech

Key Points

• Persuasive speeches can come in many forms, such as sales pitches, debates, and legal proceedings.
• Persuasive speeches may utilize the three modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos and logos.
• Ethos is the most important appeal in a persuasive speech.
• Factors such as body language, the willingness of the audience, and the environment in which the speech is given, all affect the success of a persuasive speech.
• Audience Analysis is important in a persuasive speech, as the audience will be convinced for their own reasons, not for the speaker’s reasons.

Key Terms

Audience Analysis

the speaker’s understanding of the audience’s knowledge, personal experience, and proximity to a topic

pathos

emotional appeal to the audience

Logos

logical appeal to the audience; does the speaker’s argument make sense?

persuasion

the process aimed at changing a person’s (or a group’s) attitude or behavior

ethos

credibility of the speaker, assigned to them by the audience

Definition

A persuasive speech is a specific type of speech in which the speaker has a goal of convincing the audience to accept his or her point of view. The speech is arranged in such a way as to hopefully cause the audience to accept all or part of the expressed view. Though the overarching goal of a persuasive speech is to convince the audience to accept a perspective, not all audiences can be convinced by a single speech and not all perspectives can persuade the audience. The success of a persuasive speech is often measured by the audience’s willingness to consider the speaker’s argument.

The Sales Pitch

An example of a persuasive speech is a sales pitch. During a sales pitch, the speaker is trying to convince the audience to buy his or her product or service. If the salesperson is successful, the audience (the person being sold to) will choose to purchase the product or service.

However, salespeople understand that just because someone does not make a purchase after the first sales pitch does not mean the pitch failed. Persuasion is often a process. People may need multiple persuasive pitches and a lot of outside information before they are ready to accept a new view.

Components of a Persuasive Speech

While ethos is an essential part of a persuasive speech, pathos and logos are usually combined to form the best possible argument.

While a speaker can attempt to establish ethos, or credibility, with an audience, it is ultimately assigned to them based on the audience’s perception. If the audience does not perceive the speaker as a credible source on the topic about which they are speaking, they will ultimately have a hard time considering the speaker’s argument.

The logos in a speech, or logical appeals, are arguments that present a set of information and show why a conclusion must rationally be true. For example, arguments heard in court are logical arguments.

Pathos, emotional appeals, are appeals that seek to make the audience feel a certain way so that they will accept a conclusion. Negative political ads, for example, often incorporate emotional appeals by juxtaposing an opponent with a negative emotion such as fear.

How to Succeed

Using an attention grabbing device is a powerful way to begin a persuasive speech. If you can make your audience laugh, think about a personal experience, or tell an anecdote that produces emotion, they are more likely to listen to the content of your argument. Additionally, keeping a speech within 6-8 minutes makes the audience less likely to let their mind wander away from what you are saying.

The effectiveness of a persuasive speech also depends on factors beyond the words of the speech. The willingness of the audience to accept a new view, the body language of the speaker, and the environment in which the speech is given all can affect the success of a persuasive speech.

A successful speaker will do their best to establish strong ethos with their audience, and combine pathos and logos to form the best possible argument. Audience analysis is an important factor when giving a persuasive speech. For example, if a speaker is trying to convince the audience not to tell their children about Santa Claus, using arguments that relate and resonate with them, such as encouraging them to remember how they felt when they discovered he wasn’t real, will be more successful than if the speaker shared a negative personal experience of their own.

14.1.2: The Goals of a Persuasive Speech: Convincing, Actuation, and Stimulation

Learning Objective

Define the three goals of a persuasive speech

Key Points

• Convincing speeches aim to get the audience to change their mind to accept the view put forth in the speech.
• Actuation speeches seek to incite a certain action in the audience.
• Stimulation speeches are designed to get an audience to believe more enthusiastically in a view.

Key Terms

stimulation

An activity causing excitement or pleasure.

actuate

To incite to action; to motivate.

convince

To make someone believe, or feel sure about something, especially by using logic, argument or evidence.

The overall goal of a persuasive speech is for the audience to accept your viewpoint as the speaker. However, this is not a nuanced enough definition to capture the actual goals of different persuasive speeches. Persuasive speeches can be designed to convince, actuate, and/or stimulate the audience.

Convincing

A convincing speech is designed to cause the audience to internalize and believe a viewpoint that they did not previously hold. In a sense, a convincing argument changes the audience’s mind. For example, suppose you are giving a persuasive speech claiming that Coke is better than Pepsi. Your goal is not just for the audience to hear that you enjoy Coke more, but for Pepsi lovers to change their minds.

Actuation

An actuation speech has a slightly different goal. An actuation speech is designed to cause the audience to do something, to take some action. This type of speech is particularly useful if the audience already shares some or all of your view. For example, at the end of presidential campaigns, candidates begin to focus on convincing their supporters to actually vote. They are seeking to actuate the action of voting through their speeches .

Stimulation

Persuasive speeches can also be used to enhance how fervently the audience believes in an idea. In this instance, the speaker understands that the audience already believes in the viewpoint, but not to the degree that he or she would like. As a result, the speaker tries to stimulate the audience, making them more enthusiastic about the view. For example, religious services often utilize stimulation. They are not trying to convince those of another religion to switch religions necessarily; there is an understanding that the congregation already accepts part or all of the religion. Instead, they are trying to enhance the degree of belief.

14.1.3: Persuasive vs. Informative Speaking

Learning Objective

Differentiate between informative and persuasive speeches

Key Points

• Informative speeches (or informational speeches) seek to provide facts, statistics, or general evidence. They are primarily concerned with the transmission of knowledge to the audience.
• Persuasive speeches are designed to convince the audience that a certain viewpoint is correct. In doing so, the speaker may utilize information.
• Informative and persuasive speeches are exemplified by academic lectures and sales pitches, respectively.

Key Term

informative

Providing knowledge, especially useful or interesting information.

Informative (or informational) and persuasive speaking are related, but distinct, types of speeches. The difference between the two lies in the speaker’s end goal and what the speaker wants the audience to leave with.

Informative speeches are probably the most prevalent variety of speech. The goal is always to supply information and facts to the audience. This information can come in the form of statistics, facts, or other forms of evidence. Informational speeches do not tell people what to do with the information; their goal is for the audience to have and understand the information. Academic lectures are often informational speeches, because the professor is attempting to present facts so the students can understand them.

Informational speeches may have a tendency to become overdrawn and boring. Their goal is not to excite the audience members, but rather to provide them with knowledge they did not have before the speech.

Like informational speeches, persuasive speeches use information. However, persuasive speeches are designed for the audience to not only hear and understand the information, but to use it to be convinced of a viewpoint. The end goal of a persuasive speech is not for the audience to have information, but rather for them to have a certain view. Persuasive speeches may use some of the same techniques as informational speeches, but can also use emotions to convince the audience. A sales pitch is one example of a persuasive speech.

A common cry against certain persuasive speeches is that they rely too much on emotion and not enough on facts. A persuasive speech that succeeds in convincing the audience to accept a view but is based on faulty or misleading information is unethical.

14.1.4: The Psychology of Persuasion

Learning Objective

Explain the two psychological theories of persuasion

Key Points

• Each person is unique, so there is no single psychological key to persuasion.
• Cialdini proposed six psychological persuasive techniques: reciprocity, commitment and consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity.
• The Relationship Based Persuasion technique has four steps: survey the situation, confront the five barriers to a successful influence encounter, make the pitch, and secure the commitments.

Key Terms

social proof

People tend to do things that they see others are doing.

reciprocity

the responses of individuals to the actions of others

There is no single key to a successful persuasive speech. Some people take longer than others to be persuaded, and some respond to different persuasion techniques. Therefore, persuasive speakers should be cognizant of audience characteristics to customize the pitch.

The psychology of persuasion is best exemplified by two theories that try to explain how people are influenced.

Robert Cialdini, in his book on persuasion, defined six “weapons of influence:”

1. Reciprocity: People tend to return a favor. In Cialdini’s conferences, he often uses the example of Ethiopia providing thousands of dollars in humanitarian aid to Mexico just after the 1985 earthquake, despite Ethiopia suffering from a crippling famine and civil war at the time. Ethiopia had been reciprocating for the diplomatic support Mexico provided when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1937.
2. Commitment and Consistency: Once people commit to what they think is right, they are more likely to honor that commitment even if the original motivation is subsequently removed. For example, in car sales, suddenly raising the price at the last moment works because buyers have already decided to buy.
3. Social Proof: People will do things they see other people are doing. In one experiment, if one or more person looked up into the sky, bystanders would then look up to see what they could see. This experiment was aborted, as so many people looked up that they stopped traffic.
4. Authority: People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts. Cialdini cites incidents like the Milgram experiments in the early 1960s and the My Lai massacre in 1968.
5. Liking: People are easily persuaded by other people whom they like. Cialdini cites the marketing of Tupperware, wherein people were more likely to buy from others they liked. Some of the biases favoring more attractive people are discussed, but generally more aesthetically pleasing people tend to use this influence over others.
6. Scarcity: Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying that offers are available for a “limited time only” encourages sales.

The second theory is called Relationship Based Persuasion. It was developed by Richard Shell and Mario Moussa. The overall theory is that persuasion is the art of winning over others. Their four step approach is:

1. Survey your situation: This step includes an analysis of the persuader’s situation, goals and challenges.
2. Confront the five barriers: Five obstacles pose the greatest risks to a successful influence encounter – relationships, credibility, communication mismatches, belief systems, and interest and needs.
3. Make your pitch: People need a solid reason to justify a decision, yet at the same time many decisions are made on basis of intuition. This step also deals with presentation skills.
4. Secure your commitments: In order to safeguard the longtime success of a persuasive decision, it is vital to deal with politics at both the individual and organizational level.

14.1.5: The Ethics of Persuasion

Learning Objective

Discuss the qualities that assure that persuasion is ethical

Key Points

• Methods such as torture, coercion, and brainwashing are always unethical.
• Ethical persuasion has three components: the exploration of the other person’s viewpoint, the explanation of your viewpoint, and the creation of resolutions.
• Tests such as the TARES test and the Fitzpatrick & Gauthier test are used to determine if a persuasion attempt is ethical.

Key Term

coercion

Use of physical or moral force to compel a person to do something, or to abstain from doing something, thereby depriving that person of the exercise of free will.

Ethics of Persuasion

Not all persuasion is ethical. Persuasion is widely considered unethical if it is for the purpose of personal gain at the expense of others, or for personal gain without the knowledge of the audience. Furthermore, some methods of persuasion are wholly written off as unethical. For example, coercion, brainwashing, and torture are never considered ethical .

Barring any of the persuasive methods that are easily distinguished as unethical (such as torture), the line between ethical and unethical is less clearly demarcated. Ethical persuasion has a series of common characteristics that are missing in unethical persuasion. Ethical persuasion seeks to achieve the following three goals:

1. Explore the other person’s viewpoint
2. Explain your viewpoint
3. Create resolutions

Notably, this approach involves input from the audience and an honest explanation of your viewpoint. If you have questions about the ethics of a persuasive attempt, there are a number of tests that can be done.

TARES Test

Sherry Baker and David Martinson proposed a five-part TARES test to help guide the PR practitioner to define ethical persuasion. An ethical persuasive speech must have all of the following components:

1. Truthfulness of the message
2. Authenticity of the persuader
3. Respect for the audience
4. Equity of the persuasive appeal

Fitzpatrick & Gauthier

Fitzpatrick and Gauthier developed a series of questions that must be honestly answered to determine how ethical a pitch is:

1. For what purpose is persuasion being employed?
2. Toward what choices and with what consequences for individual lives is persuasion being used?
3. Does the persuasion in this case contribute to or interfere with the decision-making process for its target audience?

12.1: Methods of Delivery

12.1.1: Defining a Successful Delivery

Learning Objective

List the four main qualities that make a speech “real” and describe their use

Key Points

• Ethical–Audiences expect a public speaker’s life to be a reflection of his or her message.
• Conversation–Audiences in North America seem to respond more favorably to public speaking that is a natural conversation.
• Interactivity–Audiences feel connected to speakers who talk with them, rather than at them.
• Eye contact–North American audiences expect the speaker to look them in the eye.
• Voice–Each audience member expects a conversational tone but also wants to hear and understand the speaker. Public speakers should always use a microphone to make sure everyone can hear.
• Gestures–Audiences expect to see gestures that feel natural, maintain interest, and help convey the message. Gestures may include movements of the hands, face, or other parts of the body.

Key Term

ethics

The study of principles relating to right and wrong conduct.

Example

• Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, is airing his opinions about the proper manner of speaking upon the stage. HAMLET’S SPEECH Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue; but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. Oh, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and noise. I would have such a fellow whipped for o’erdoing Termagant. It out-herods Herod. Pray you, avoid it. Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor. Suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this special observance, that you o’erstep not the modesty of nature. For anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as ‘t were, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now this overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance o’erweigh a whole theater of others. Oh, there be players that I have seen play, and heard others praise, and that highly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the accent of Christians nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted and bellowed that I have thought some of nature’s journeymen had made men and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably. Oh, reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them; for there be of them that will themselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too, though in the meantime some necessary question of the play be then to be considered. That’s villainous, and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it. Go make you ready.

Keeping it “real”

Successful delivery has two components according to Quintilian 9. A good man (or woman), speaking well has to be “real”, firstly you need to know and speak the truth; and secondly, you cannot be posing or acting when you speak.

Ethics of the speaker

Being a real person is the ethical nature of public speaking. Quintilian considered the ethical nature of the speaker first. The speaker is obligated to be a person of good character and speak the truth.

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. It comes from the Greek word “ethos,” which means “character”. Not only must the speaker deliver the speech well but he/she must be a person of good character. From the very early days of studying rhetoric, ethics were important. The speaker could not just say one thing and then do something different; he/she was called upon to live by what the he/she was saying. Speaking well, also means speaking justly, where eloquence, wisdom and goodness combine. The Greek philosopher Socrates suggested that evil or bad actions are the result of ignorance and that any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it. What do you think?

How does the speaker keep it real?

Let’s look at two important aspects of speaking well, which may serve as a guide.

Speaking as magnified conversation

In general, audiences in North America seem to respond more favorably to public speaking which is modeled as a natural, but magnified conversation. Public speaking is a conversation with the audience. Working with this model, you will find that certain behaviors will be more successful than others.

• Interactivity–Rather than talking “at” the audience, it’s better to be speaking directly “with” the audience. You should, at least mentally, conceive of the audience as responding, asking questions and approving or disapproving of what you are saying. In essence, you are not lost in your own train of thought while ignoring the thoughts of the audience. There is interactivity or a perception of give and take between the audience and yourself as the speaker.
• Eye contact–This is an important aspect of successful delivery for North American audiences. They expect you to look them in the eye. Here and in Western Europe, eye contact is interpreted the same way: conveying interest and honesty. People who avoid eye contact when speaking are viewed in a negative light, as withholding information and lacking in general confidence. However, in the Middle East, Africa, and especially Asia eye contact is seen as being disrespectful and even challenging of one’s authority. People who make eye contact, but only briefly, are seen as respectful and courteous.
• Voice–you want to speak naturally but loud enough to be heard by all the members of the audience. At a minimum, you need to be intelligible to the audience so that they can comprehend the message. If you are not able to be clearly heard by the audience, then you will want to get special help to improve pronunciation, stress and emphasis.
• Gestures–You are not an actor who takes on or plays a role, but rather, one who enlarges the gestures so that everyone can see. A gesture is a form of non-verbal communication in which visible bodily actions communicate particular messages, either in place of speech or together with and in parallel to words. Gestures include movement of the hands, face, or other parts of the body. Today, the conversational speaker, unlike the old school elocutionist who focused more on technique than substance, strives for natural gestures, which develop out of what is being said. As a conversational speaker you do not want to use planned or fixed gestures for dramatic effect. Additionally, you want to avoid any gestures that, out of nervousness or habit, might distract the audience from the message.

Requirements of the occasion

Conversational speaking or dialog with the audience does not mean that you are always informal or use casual speech. Different speaking occasions have different degrees of formality. The audience will judge, as so you need to adapt the appropriateness of dress, posture and word choice associated with how formal or informal the occasion may be. Ultimately, the successful speaker is really true to self and receives the desired response from the audience.

12.1.2: Choosing Your Method of Delivery

Learning Objective

Develop your personal delivery style, considering the four methods of speech delivery

Key Points

• There are four common methods of delivery: impromptu (little or not preparation), memorization, reading from prepared manuscript, and extemporaneous (with outline or notes).
• Develop a speaking persona by manifesting your own honest and sincere personality without imitating the style of others when communicating with the audience.
• Have something to say. The first indicator that a person is speaking well is that the speaker will have something to say. Without ideas, opinions, or information, the speech wastes the speaker’s and the audience’s time.
• Speak honestly and with sincerity. Unless you thoroughly believe in the message you wish to convey to others, you are not likely to impress them favorably.
• Develop your own style; do not imitate. Speaking in a natural conversational style means that the speaker does not imitate the speaking style of other great speakers but may reflect their style or approach as it suits the speaker’s personality.

Key Terms

persona

In the study of communication, persona is a term given to describe the versions of self that all individuals possess. The public persona will differ from the persona an individual will present when he/she happens to be alone.

manuscript

A single, original copy of a book, article, or composition, written by hand or even printed.

impromptu

Improvised; without prior preparation.

Implications for Selection of Method

Four Methods for Different Occasions

There are four common methods of delivery–impromptu with little or no preparation, memorization, reading from prepared manuscript, and extemporaneous with outline or notes. Often you will not have a choice in the method of the delivery; the demands of the situation or the occasion may dictate the method. For example, you may be called on to respond to what someone else has just said, or to add a few words with no time to prepare. Or, you could be called upon to read a proclamation or announcement.

Impromptu

On many different occasions you may be called upon to speak with little or no notice before hand. For an impromptu speech, you may have a minute or two to prepare in your mind before you speak. Additionally, you may be called on to read a letter, scripture, or article to a group without preparation.

Manuscript

You may need to use the manuscript that is provided without adding your own thoughts or comments. However, there are other situations where you will need to prepare your own manuscript— perhaps for publication in a newsletter or to make sure you include exact wording.

Memorized

You may need to memorize a brief speech, scripture, or perhaps a poem as your part in a presentation, rather than being given a manuscript to read .

Extemporaneous

In many situations you will have advanced notice, you can think about what you want to say to your audience and anticipate their responses as you develop an outline for your message. Extemporaneous is the most natural of all methods of prepared delivery where you can successfully achieve a more natural conversation with the audience.

Developing a Speaking Persona for Different Situations

You will want to develop your own persona for all methods of delivery. In the study of communication, persona is a term given to describe the versions of self that all individuals possess. You behave according to the desired impression you wish to create when speaking with others. A person may create or manifest different personas at different times, for different occasions. In particular, the persona you present before others when speaking will differ from the persona your present when you happen to be alone. Here are some important considerations for developing a natural, conversational persona for speech delivery.

Have Something to Say

The first indicator that a person is speaking well is that the speaker will have something to say. Without ideas, opinions, or information, talk becomes the most wasteful product in the world. It is not only a waste of time to the person who insists on delivering it, but a waste of time and patience to the people who are forced to listen. Shakespeare put a man who had nothing to say in to The Merchant of Venice and then had Bassanio describe him as follows:

“Gratiano speaks an infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all Venice. His reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chaff: you shall seek all day ‘ere you find them, and when you have them, they are not worth the search.”

In essence, you need to think clearly and prepare the content of the message carefully before focusing on delivery.

Speak Sincerely

A second indicator of a good speaker is sincerity. Nothing can be substituted for personal sincerity. Unless you thoroughly believe in the message you wish to convey to others, you are not likely to impress them favorably.

Develop Your Own Style—Do Not Imitate

Speaking in a natural, conversational style means that the speaker does not imitate the speaking style of other great speakers but may reflect their style or approach as it suits the speaker’s personality. For example, shows British rapper Speech Debelle who has developed her own sincere, conversational delivery style in her 2012 album, Freedom of Speech. It is a fatal mistake to set out deliberately to imitate some favorite speaker, and to mold your style after that person. You may observe certain ways or methods in other speakers that will fit in naturally with your style and temperament, so you adopt them. Always be on your guard against anything that might impair your own individuality—even in the slightest degree.

Remember that speaking is a perfectly normal act, which does not call for strange, artificial methods, but only for an extension and development of the familiar act of conversation. The objective is to develop and magnify your own honest and sincere persona as a speaker without imitation when communicating with the audience.

12.1.3: Speaking from a Manuscript

Learning Objective

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of delivering a speech directly from a manuscript

Key Points

• When provided with a manuscript, you need to deliver it exactly as written. It is the original author’s ideas and not your own that you are presenting to the audience.
• One important form of manuscript is a proclamation. When you read the proclamation, you create a distinct speech act that puts the statements into effect.
• After the speaker reads the manuscript and understands the meaning, he or she can practice creating a conversational delivery by emphasizing important words, creating vocal phrases with the right words together, and varying the pace and emphasis.
• If you are preparing your own manuscript for delivery, consider first the audience and write for them as if you were speaking directly to them.
• You can now use low cost personal teleprompters to help you deliver sermons, deliver speeches, and create quality audios.

Key Terms

teleprompter

A teleprompter is a display device that prompts the person speaking with an electronic visual text of a speech.

manuscript

A single, original copy of a book, article, or composition, written by hand or even printed.

Proclamation

A statement which is proclaimed; a formal public announcement.

You may need to use the manuscript provided to you without adding your own thoughts or comments. However, there are other situations where you will need to prepare your own manuscript perhaps for publication in a newsletter or to make sure you include exact wording.

When Provided with a Manuscript

You need to delivery it exactly as written. You are delivering words which were prepared by someone else; they are the original author’s ideas and not your own that you are presenting to the audience. The manuscript could take many different forms. It could be a short story, a poem, or an article. You may also be provided with a special type of document, called a proclamation.

With a proclamation, the wording is exact and must be read exactly as written, as it is a distinct speech act that puts the statements into effect. If are reading a proclamation and say, “I now declare…” when you finish you have actually made it happen.

Advantages

You usually have time to prepare which will allow you to fully understand the meaning that needs to conveyed to the audience. Once you understand the meaning, then it is possible to practice reading to create a conversational delivery by emphasizing important words, create vocal phrases with the right words together, and vary the pace and emphasis to convey the meaning of the original. Since you will have the document with you, you can mark it to indicate where you want to add emphasis, pause, and change volume or pitch.

Disadvantages

Of course, the obvious disadvantge is that you are speaking for someone else; your are delivering his or her thoughts and ideas and not your own. You do not have ownership of the ideas but you may be judged since you are delivering the manuscript.

When preparing your own manuscript

If you are preparing your own manuscript for delivery, consider first the audience and write for them as if you were speaking directly to them. You are not writing a book but a speech to be delivered. When you deliver the speech from manuscript, you are challenged to make a connection with the audience rather than simply read words.

Advantages

Preparing your own manuscript prevents you from saying anything you would not say in careful consideration of your topic. It does assure that you say everything you want to say and gives the impression that you are a calm, collected thinker. You have the opportunity to work with a teleprompter to help you speak directly to the audience, but you will still need to practice with its speed and placement.

Disadvantages

There are disadvantages for the speaker preparing his or her own manuscript. It is a challenge, since the speaker will have difficulty maintaining eye contact with the audience to show warmth and sincerity. It may also be difficult for you to actually develop a conversation with the audience while reading. You want to sound natural and develop your own persona which is difficult if a person is just reading his or her words on a page. With the necessary practice, you can perfect and develop a speech and deliver it from a manuscript with careful rehearsal.

When Working with a Teleprompter

You may also work with a teleprompter to increase eye contact and presence with the audience.

Professional Teleprompters

A teleprompter (also called a telescript or an autocue) is a display device that prompts the person speaking with an electronic visual text of a speech or script. Using a teleprompter is similar to the practice of using cue cards. You can see the words on the screen in front of and usually below the camera lens of a professional video camera. The words on the screen are reflected to the eyes of the presenter using a sheet of clear glass or specially prepared beam splitter. Since you do not need to look down to consult written notes, you appear to be speaking spontaneously and can look directly into the camera lens or the audience.

Personal Teleprompters

Fortunately, there are inexpensive teleprompter software applications as well as free web-based teleprompter applications, which will allow you to use a teleprompter to help you deliver sermons, deliver speeches, and create quality audios. These entry-level products work on desktops, laptops, and even tablets.

12.1.4: Speaking from Memory

Learning Objective

Demonstrate how to deliver a speech from memory so that you appear natural and relatable to the audience

Key Points

• Memorized delivery takes two basic forms: the total speech or manuscript is committed to memory, or standard parts of the message are memorized and woven into each speech.
• Memorizing your speech allows you to stay in touch with your audience.
• One of the main problems of delivering a speech from memory is that it sounds like you are reading since you are focusing your attention on remembering the words.
• When writing your speech, write as if you were speaking naturally, directly to an audience.

Key Term

extemporaneous

A type of speech delivery which involves preparation of speaker notes prior to delivery, associated with conversational style of delivery.

Uses of Memorized Delivery

Good orators of the past were expected to deliver their speeches from memory without notes or other aids. Today, you may find it to your advantage to memorize your speech or presentation.

Today, memorization takes two basic forms:

• The total speech or manuscript is committed to memory.
• Standard parts of a message are memorized and woven into each speech.

Advantages

If you memorize your speech you are more likely to perform better than the speaker reading from a manuscript, since you can stay in touch with your audience. When speaking from memory, you do not need to think about what is coming next or how to express an idea as you would in extemporaneous speaking; therefore, you can give more attention to the audience. Today, we generally admire and stress extemporaneous speaking in our society, but many of the great speeches in history were delivered all or partially from memory.

Disadvantages

One of the main problems of delivering a speech from memory is sounding rehearsed, or like you are reading. It is possible to memorize and deliver a speech with variety and emphasis.

Tips for the Speaker

You may use various approaches to memorize and rehearse your speech. Below are some guidelines to follow when delivering a memorized speech:

• When writing the speech, write as if you were speaking naturally, directly to an audience.
• Develop an outline of the main points and then memorize the outline.
• If delivering the same speech to different audiences over time, memorize the individual sections and then weave them together for each occasion.
• If you forget a word or two or a small section, just continue speaking.

Overall, if you have the attitude that you are communicating with an audience rather than reciting words, you are likely to succeed.

12.1.5: Impromptu Speeches

Learning Objective

List ways to quickly prepare when called upon to give an impromptu speech

Key Points

• Remember that you are generally in control of the content, so you can decide what you are going to talk about and include topics you want to talk about.
• Your delivery will naturally be more conversational and spontaneous.
• Since you are not well-prepared, you may overlook some significant information, but audience questions can often help fill in the gaps.
• Become familiar with common organizational patterns so you can apply them in any situation using the three part speech outline of an Introduction, Body, and Conclusion.

Key Term

impromptu

Improvised; without prior preparation.

Impromptu Speech

An impromptu speech is given with little or no preparation, yet almost always with some advance knowledge on the topic. When called to speak “off the cuff” on the “spur of the moment,” is is usually because the speaker is quite knowledgeable about the subject. For example, if called on to speak in class, a student might give a short impromptu speech about a topic that was in the assigned readings. Business meetings also use a “check in” to tell everyone else about a current project. In small informal meetings, the audience will interrupt an impromptu speech and ask questions, which helps guide the speech and the information that is presented. When campaigning, politicians sometimes respond to reporters or voters almost anywhere and at any time.

Advantages

Remember that you are generally in control of the content you are presenting, so you can include topics that you want to talk about. Additionally, you can use personal examples from experience to support what you are saying. Since you are an authority on the topic, you want to speak with conviction like you really mean it. Your delivery will naturally be more conversational and spontaneous. Since you are not prepared with pages of notes, you are more likely to speak directly to the audience just like if you were speaking to another person in a conversation.

Disadvantages

Since you are not well-prepared, you may have difficulty thinking of what to say or formulating the ideas once you get up to speak. Although you are familiar with the topic, your speech may lack details and supporting information. If the audience is passive and does not ask questions to guide you, you may overlook some significant content. Hopefully, someone in the audience will ask questions so you can fill in gaps. Additionally, impromptu speaking is rarely appropriate for occasions which require more reasoned discourse with supporting ideas or more formal events.

Tips for the Speaker (Impromptu Preparation)

What do you do if you are asked to speak at the last minute? It is best to become familiar with common organization patterns so you can apply them in any situation and then also consider what you have been asked to speak about. Are you presenting your opinion? State your opinion, the reasons why you support that opinion, and conclude. Is it something that happened? Retell the event from beginning to end (first, next, then, etc.). Is it a demonstration? Explain each step in the process from first to last.

• Make sure to plan an introduction and a conclusion. If possible, take a few moments to think about what you want to say to introduce the topic and have some way of concluding.
• Make a few notes for yourself on a card, phone, or iPad. Or, text yourself a few single words to remind yourself of the important ideas.
• Consider the simple three part outline of an Introduction, Body, and Conclusion, and fit your ideas into that pattern.
• Do not try to remember a detailed outline for your entire speech; just remember the order of important points.
• Be sure to stop when you have made your points.
• If you do not know what to say next, you can summarize and paraphrase what you have just said, and then will probably be ready to move on to the next topic.
• Remember that, in most situations, you will know more about the subject than the audience. Usually you will not be called up to speak impromptu about something you know nothing about, so you have probably spoken about the general topic before or you probably have knowledge to share with others.
• Talk like you mean it. In other words speak with conviction. You are explaining your ideas or knowledge and you are an authority.
• Relax!

12.1.6: Extemporaneous Speeches

Learning Objective

Give examples of note-taking strategies for extemporaneous speeches

Key Points

• There are two popular methods for organizing ideas to create a graphical representation for speaker notes–outlining and mind or concept mapping.
• An outline is a list of items with each item divided into additional sub-items. Each level in an outline has at least two subcategories. There are three basic types of hierarchical outlines–sentence, topic and phrase.
• Topic and phrase are the most useful for speaker notes since they allow the speaker to quickly glance at the notes while maintaining eye contact with the audience.
• Mind mapping and concept mapping are visual representation of ideas and concepts. Both mind maps and concept maps can be used to graphically show the relationship between ideas for a speech and as speaker notes for delivery.
• A mind map diagram starts with a single word as a central branch node and lesser categories as sub-branches going off from the central node. A concept maps can have multiple hubs or nodes with clusters of concepts labeled to show the kind of relationship.
• While extemporaneous speaking may be free of the constraints of memorization and manuscript speaking, it is not careless talk; the speaker prepares notes in advance in order to deliver an organized speech.

Key Terms

mind map

A diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items linked to and arranged radially around a central key word or idea.

concept map

A diagram showing the relationships among concepts, with the concepts drawn in rectangular boxes, which are connected with labelled arrows that denote the relationships between concepts, such as “is a,” “gives rise to,” “results in,” “is required by,” or “contributes to.”

extemporaneous

A type of speech delivery which involves preparation of speaker notes prior to delivery, associated with conversational style of delivery.

Extemporaneous Speech

Extemporaneous speaking is one of the most natural methods for delivering a prepared speech. You can use an extemporaneous speech to achieve a more natural tone, flow and style with the audience.

First, think about your topics and anticipate the audience’s reception to your speech. You can develop speech notes based on this preparation and use them to aid you during the presentation.

Preparing Speech Notes

There are two popular methods for creating a graphical representation for notes: outlining, and mind or concept mapping.

An outline is a list of items with each item divided into additional sub-items. Each level in an outline has at least two subcategories. There are three basic types of outlines:

1. Sentence outline – Each complete sentence includes a heading or single sentence about the subject of the outline.
2. Topic outline – Each topic is listed and functions as a subtopic of the outline’s subject.
3. Phrase outline – Each short phrase entry is a subtopic of the aforementioned main entry.

Speaking notes, topic outlines, and phrase outlines have an advantage over sentence outlines. For example, you can easily look at your notes for reference and as a personal reminder of which topics to discuss as you’re speaking.

Outlines commonly take two forms: alphanumeric and decimal.

An alphanumeric outline includes a capitalized number or letter at the beginning of each topic. Look at the sample:

Thesis statement: E-mail and internet monitoring is an invasion of employees’ rights

I. The situation: Over 80% of today’s companies monitor their employees.

….A. To prevent fraudulent activities, theft, and other workplace related violations.

….B. To more efficiently monitor employee productivity.

II. What are employees’ privacy rights when it comes to electronic monitoring and surveillance?

….A. American employees have basically no legal protection from mean and snooping bosses.

……..1. There are no federal or State laws protecting employees.

……..2. Employees may assert privacy protection for their own personal effects.

….B. Most managers believe that there is no right to privacy in the workplace.

……..1. Workplace communications should be about work; anything else is a misuse of company equipment and company time.

……..2. Employers have a right to prevent misuse by monitoring employee communication.

Decimal outline

The decimal outline shows how each item at every level relates to the whole sample.

Thesis statement:

1.0 Introduction

….1.1 Brief history of Liz Claiborne

….1.2 Corporate environment

2.0 Career opportunities

….2.1 Operations management

……..2.1.1 Traffic

……..2.1.2 International trade and corporate customs

……..2.1.3 Distribution

….2.2 Product development

The outline could be printed or handwritten as in this expert from Richard Nixon’s Checkers speech.

Mind Mapping and Concept Mapping

Mind mapping and concept mapping are visual representations of ideas and concepts. A mind map is a diagram which starts with a single word and then branches out from the central node, with lesser categories as sub-branches of the larger branches. Concept maps are more free-form, since multiple hubs and clusters can be created. Unlike mind maps, concept maps do not fix on a single conceptual center.

For example, in the mind map for student learning , you can view the main component idea and related ideas which connect to its branch nodes. You can also use a mind map as speaking notes.

Practice and Rehearsal Guidelines

The following guidelines are best practices on how to practice and rehearse an extemporaneous speech:

• Speak in a conversational style by pretending you are with your audience.
• Rehearse with your graphics and coordinate them with your talk.
• Display your graphics only when you are talking about them.
• Rehearse in front of others and solicit feedback.
• Record and listen to your timed practice speech.
• Prepare for interruptions and questions at the end.

Although extemporaneous speaking may not require memorization and manuscript speaking, organize and prepare your content and notes ahead of time to deliver a speech that will be well received by your audience .

12.1.7: Key Differences Between Prepared and Impromptu Speeches

Learning Objective

Differentiate between prepared and impromptu speeches

Key Points

• An impromptu speech is one where the speaker is given no preparation time at all.
• A prepared speech is one where the speaker is given the topic well in advance and the speaker is given time to research it and rehearse the speech.
• The different type of prepared speeches include extemporaneous, memorized, and manuscript.

Key Term

impromptu

Improvised; without prior preparation.

Differences Between Prepared and Impromptu Speeches

There are several different types of speeches that one can deliver. They range from perfectly memorized, to completely off the cuff with no preparation at all.

Prepared Speech

The most common type of speech is a prepared speech. For a prepared speech, the speaker was been given the topic in advance, had time to do background research on it, and has practiced delivering the speech.

This type of speech may be used when giving a presentation or speaking in a business meeting.

However, preparation does not necessarily mean memorizing every word. A prepared speech can be an extemporaneous, manuscript, or memorized speech, or a combination of these techniques. An extemporaneous speech is often delivered with the aid of note cards to help the speaker remember key points and content order. A memorized speech is one that is recited from memory without the aid of scripts or cue cards. A manuscript speech is one that has the entire speech written out for reference.

When preparing for a speech one should:

• Rehearse the speech as it will be presented (that is, with visual aids, standing or sitting as will be appropriate for the real speech, etc.)
• Time the rehearsal
• Rehearse in front of others
• If possible, rehearse in the location where the speech will be delivered to become more comfortable in the space, see how the audience will view the speech, and see how much space is available for movement
• Create a visual and audio recording of the speech, and look for areas where body language or vocal performance should be improved

Impromptu Speech

Another type of speech that is less commonly seen in society (but nonetheless very useful to understand) is the impromptu speech. Impromptu speaking occurs when the speaker is given no time to prepare for the speech; he or she is given a topic and must immediately begin speaking on it. This speaking style involves thinking on one’s feet and being able to plan the flow of the speech as the speaker is giving it.

While this seems like a difficult style in which to give a speech, most speech in a person’s daily life is impromptu. People do not background research on every conversation or prepare for hours before speaking to friends. However, having to give this kind of a speech to an audience or on a topic one is not so familiar with can definitely be a challenge.

The most common example of a real world impromptu speech is the elevator pitch. When in an unanticipated situation where one is speaking to someone who has the ability to advance one’s career or provide an opportunity in a new field, it is crucial to be able to deliver an excellent impromptu speech.

12.1.8: Additional Notes on Preparing and Delivering Impromptu Speeches

Learning Objective

Describe methods to successfully deliver an impromptu speech

Key Points

• Anticipate common questions; if you are asked about your line of work at a social event, you can have a response prepared. Having an elevator pitch ready is one way to prepare.
• If you think you will be called on to speak, it is a good idea to take a few minutes and make notes on important points.Select a familiar organizational pattern and then add an introduction and summary conclusion statement to the main ideas.
• You want to maintain eye contact, speak directly to the other person(s,) and minimize noise which will interfere with your delivery at an informal event.
• In a formal, stand-up event you want to put comments in context of the occasion, maintain eye contact while glancing at notes, and use internal summaries and transitions to show progress as you move to the conclusion.
• In a Q&A session, you want to listen attentively and repeat the question that you are answering. If you do not know the answer, say so and make arrangement for a follow-up electronic response.

Key Term

impromptu

Improvised; without prior preparation.

Additional Notes on Preparing and Delivering Impromptu Speeches

An impromptu speech is given with little or no preparation. However, you will generally be called up to speak about a topic in which you are familiar or considered an expert. Impromptu speeches can take many different forms and occur in different situations. There are ways to prepare and deliver impromptu speeches by anticipating the more common impromptu contexts.

Preparation—Think before you Speak!

Anticipate Common Questions

In certain situations you can anticipate the types of questions or requests which will require a seemingly impromptu response. For example, you might be asked about your line of work at a social event. Since you know your occupation, you can have a response prepared. You might have a special project or interest that you want to pitch to others.

Elevator pitch

An elevator pitch is a short summary used to quickly identify what you do or what project is important to you in about 30 seconds, or the length of an elevator ride. So, when someone asks you what you do for a living, you can quickly and seemingly without preparation give an impromptu pitch or description.

Stand-up Speaking Event

If you think you will be called on to speak, it is a good idea to take a few minutes and make notes on the important points before you speak:

• Apply a three part plan for speech. You have learned about the three part speech structure, which are Introduction, Body and Conclusion. Apply the structure and think about your main points and thesis. List two or three main ideas for the body, develop the introduction by creating an opener, and present your conclusion with a summary and a reference to the opening statement from the introduction.
• Use a common organizational pattern. Think about the common patterns of organization with which you are already familiar: topical, spatial, chronological, and problem/solution—choose the one that fits the ideas you have just jotted down.
• Use phrases and single line notes. Make sure to make your notes as one line phrases in outline form. You can put your notes on paper or any device that allows you to quickly glance at a line and back up at the audience (like your smartphone).

Often, you will be presenting content that you have already covered with other audiences. On those occasions, you can use the same content but you will need to modify the introduction to reference the current occasion or audience.

Delivery

Informal Context

Many situations can be informal social occasions, meetings, or one-on-one talks where you could be standing or sitting.

• Maintain eye contact—it is important in Western cultural settings to look directly at the person you are speaking to so that you have each other’s attention.
• Eliminate noise—you want to make sure that you can actually hear each other easily in a noisy room. If you are experiencing noise, you might suggest stepping aside to a less noisy corner to delivery your short message.

Informal Meetings and Q&A

Impromptu speeches are usually used in short informal meetings where the audience can interrupt and ask questions to help guide the speech and retrieve the information they need from the speaker. It is important in this situation to stay focused by repeating the question and answering it without going off on a tangent.

Stand-up Speaking Context

There are situations where you will be asked to share a few words with a large audience.You will want to apply your knowledge of public speaking to deliver a short, organized speech.

• Put comments in context—you may want to start by putting your comments in context as a way of introducing your message. For example, you may refer to the occasion or the previous speaker.
• Maintain eye contact—hopefully, you had a few minutes to prepare so that you can glance at your one line notes and then back up to the audience.
• Use summaries and transitions—make sure to summarize and show connections between ideas; at the end, bring the message to closure with a summary statement.

Formal Speech with Q&A Session

Following a speech you will often participate in a Q & A session. Members of the audience will ask questions and you will respond without time to prepare:

• Listen attentively to the question, repeat it, and provide a short focused answer .
• If you do not know the answer, say so and make arrangements to respond later electronically.

You are the expert; you will know more about the topic than your listeners. Remember that the listeners want to hear what you have to say, even if it is slightly disorganized.

11.1: Understanding Language

11.1.1: The Importance of Language

Learning Objective

State the importance of carefully choosing language to use in your speech

Key Points

• Carefully select each word to include in your speech. At the same time, consider the words that don’t make the cut: what are you not saying in your speech?
• How you communicate your words, through phrasing, voice, gesture, and mannerism, is equally important as the words themselves.
• Consider what you want your audience to do, think, or feel at the conclusion of your speech. Use this to guide how you word and deliver your speech.

Key Terms

inflection

A change in pitch or tone of voice.

meaning

The objects or concept that a word or phrase denotes, or that which a sentence says.

language

A form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and structured with grammar, often with a writing system.

The Importance of Language

Language

From the words you speak to the points and topics you articulate, language is the vehicle that helps your audience understand and agree with your statement or argument.

Word Choice

Carefully select each individual word in your speech. Is it the best word you can use to convey your message or meaning? Is your phrasing easy to understand? Are you using descriptive language? Do you connect similar thoughts for your audience? Have you included points of contrast to illustrate broader points?

These are all important questions to consider as you select the words in your speech. Even more important are the words you choose to leave out: consider too, what you aren’t saying.

Delivery

It’s not just a matter of the words you say, but how you deliver them. From gesture, force, and directness, to the pitch, tone and inflection of your voice, it’s important to consider the complete package that you’re delivering to your audience. Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. You should craft and practice these elements just as carefully as the words you include in your speech.

Takeaway Message

At the end of the speech, ask yourself: how do you want your audience to walk away feeling? What do you want them to remember? Is there a particular call-to-action you want them to perform? Or, do you want a particular point to resonate with them for some time? Thinking about the end result, or takeaway message, helps you choose how to word and deliver the speech for your audience.

11.1.2: Ways of Thinking About Language

Learning Objective

Identify factors that should be considered when choosing language to be used in your speech

Key Points

• Make sure that every word in your speech has a purpose for being in your speech. Don’t waste any words and commit to writing multiple drafts to refine and hone your speech.
• Always think about your audience and venue: who are they and why are they there? Considering these factors will help inform what language is best to use in your speech.
• What are the overall goals, objectives or purpose you have for speaking? Think about this so that you can work backwards to select the right language to achieve those goals, objectives or purpose.

Key Terms

Objective

not influenced by irrational emotions or prejudices; based on facts or evidence.

venue

A place, especially the one where a given event is to happen.

Ways of Thinking About Language

Select the Best Wording

When writing your speech, it’s imperative that each and every word is carefully selected for inclusion in your speech. Each word should serve a purpose–to advance your logic and address your speech subject in some way. How you organize your speech, outline your thesis and supporting arguments, as well as the ways you describe those points are all essential to crafting the best speech you can. Devoting yourself to the creation of multiple drafts of your speech ensures that you are honing and refining your speech down to its most effective words and parts.

Consider Your Audience

Who will be listening and watching your speech? Why are they there and what do they want? You’ll want to not only fully understand your audience for who they are, as this may inform you of their experience with your subject, but you’ll also want to understand what has brought them to your speech in the first place. In thinking very specifically about the groups and types of people attending your speech, you can more finely tailor the language of your speech.

Consider Your Venue and Occasion

Understanding your speech venue and the occasion for your speech is just as important as getting to know your audience. Venue and occasion can often dictate both subject matter and formality of your speech. You want to make sure your languages both of those elements.

Your Overall Goals, Objectives and Purpose

Why are you giving a speech? What have you, from all the other people who could speak, been selected? What makes you the subject matter expert? Consider each of these questions as you prepare your speech. Knowing your purpose for speaking must be one of the guiding principles as you craft your thesis, supporting evidence and make your case to your audience. Thinking about what you want to achieve informs how you can establish a plan, that is, select the right language, to achieve that goal.

10.1: Principles of Organization

10.1.1: The Importance of Organization

Learning Objective

Explain how information, knowledge, and wisdom work together in a speech

Key Points

• Public speakers can structure the audience’s experience through skillful organization. As you write your speech, decide what you want your audience to feel in the beginning, middle, and end of your speech.
• An effective speech should balance information, knowledge, and wisdom.
• Information is the foundation of knowledge; knowledge is the basis of wisdom.

Key Terms

wisdom

Wisdom refers to insight that is gained from knowledge. This category includes truth, opinion, and perception.

knowledge

Familiarity or understanding of a particular skill, branch of learning, etc.

information

The category of information includes facts, figures, and concepts taken from primary and secondary texts.

Why Does Organization Matter?

William Carlos Williams once said that a poem is a “machine made of words. ” A sad poem is a machine that manufactures melancholy; a funny poem is a machine that produces laughs. Poetry doesn’t have a monopoly on this quality–a well-crafted speech can also be a machine made of words. Skillfully constructed language has a powerful effect on its audience, and speechwriters should strive to harness that power. How should a public speaker go about building a “machine made of words”? It’s all in the organization. Machines only work when their component parts are assembled properly.

When you are organizing your main points, ask yourself a few questions. What is your ultimate goal? Are you trying to inform the audience, persuade the audience, amuse the audience, or enrage the audience? Think about the experience you want to create for your listeners–how you want them to feel when you begin speaking, and how you want them to feel when you make your final statement. When you have a clear vision in mind, return to the “Ordering Main Points” segment and choose a model that fits your purpose.

For example, let’s say you are preparing a speech to solicit money for political dissidents in Chechnya, and you want to motivate your listeners by shocking them. If shock is the desired effect, it would be ineffective to spend ten minutes pontificating generally about the virtues of free speech without mentioning the specific abuse that the fundraiser addresses. It would be more effective to open with the story of an abused dissident who could benefit from the fundraiser’s efforts–a story that would show the audience how high the stakes are, and how donations could help.

Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom

Where is the Life we have lost in living?

Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge?

Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?

-T.S. Eliot

T.S. Eliot makes a good point: it is difficult to maintain a healthy balance of information, knowledge, and wisdom. When we write speeches, we mix material from the three main registers of meaning: information, knowledge, and wisdom. For our purposes, let’s define information as facts, figures, and concepts taken from primary and secondary texts. Knowledge is more general than information: it refers to the ideas that come from processing information, rather than the information itself. Knowledge is the synthesis of many facts. This category includes stories, principles, and contexts. Wisdom, the most general category of all, refers to insight that is gained from knowledge. Wisdom includes truth, opinion, and perception.

To put it in concrete terms, let’s look at the information/knowledge/wisdom breakdown in a speech about performance-enhancing drugs in sports:

Information: statistics about athletes’ steroid use

Knowledge: stories about athletes who take steroids

Wisdom: suggestions about ethics in sports

All three of these elements should work together. If your speech is too heavy on information and light on knowledge and wisdom, your message may get lost in the details. A speech that presents knowledge without information to support it or wisdom to justify it may seem pointless. “Wisdom” offered without information and knowledge to ground it in reality may come across as a vapid collection of clichés.

Good organization can prevent these problems. Balance information, knowledge, and wisdom as though you are building a house: lay a strong foundation of information, build knowledge on top of it, and finish the house with a roof of wisdom.

10.1.2: Critical Thinking

Learning Objective

Use critical thinking to craft an effective speech

Key Points

• Critical thinking consists of intentional, reflective thinking about a given set of information and determining not only what to believe about that information but also how to act on it.
• Critical thinking consists of the following six key processes and actions: clarifying goals, examining assumptions, discerning hidden values, evaluating evidence, accomplishing actions, and assessing conclusions.
• You must utilize the many elements of critical thinking to pinpoint your goals and articulate compelling, relevant, accurate evidence in your speech. Additionally, critical thinking allows you to examine your thesis from opposing viewpoints, giving you further strategies to bolster your argument.

Key Term

critical thinking

he application of logical principles, rigorous standards of evidence, and careful reasoning to the analysis and discussion of claims, beliefs, and issues

Critical thinking consists of intentional, reflective thinking about a given set of information and determining not only what to believe about that information but also how to act on it. When you think of delivering a speech or a public address, you might not think that critical thinking plays a key role in the delivery of that speech. The key to a successful delivery lies in the speech’s logical structure and organization of thought. Critical thinking is an important part of that organizational process.

Speeches typically serve one of four basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, to demonstrate, or to entertain. Constructing your speech with an effective thesis or main point and evidence to support that thesis requires you as the speechwriter to use critical thinking to determine how you’ll make those points. Fully understanding the context of your speech is one of the most important elements of critical thinking in your speechwriting process.

Critical thinking consists of the following six key processes and actions:

1. Clarify goals
2. Examine assumptions
3. Discern hidden values
4. Evaluate evidence
5. Accomplish actions
6. Assess conclusions

In regards to public speaking, each of these is a process to undertake as you craft your speech.

Clarifying Goals

Before you begin outlining your speech, consider exactly what you’re trying to accomplish. Are you trying to inform or instruct your audience on a particular subject? Do you seek to persuade them to feel a certain way about your topic? By considering your purpose for speaking, you can more clearly articulate your goals for the speech.

Examining Assumptions

As you pinpoint your thesis and main points, you’ll begin to outline exactly how you plan to support your argument. In order to present a clear and well-reasoned argument, you’ll need to make sure you have accurate and specific evidence to support your claims. By examining assumptions that may be made about your particular thesis, you can more clearly hone and refine the evidence you choose to present to bolster your case.

Discerning Hidden Values

Have you considered all the possible ways to present your main thesis and all the possible evidence you could include? Consider your thesis from opposing points of view. Using this critical thinking skill of discerning hidden values gives you a comprehensive way to approach your speech from all possible points of view.

Evaluating Evidence

Now that you know all the possible angles from which others can approach your line of reasoning, now it’s time to select the best evidence to support your thesis. By evaluating evidence with a critical eye, you’ll strengthen your argument by selecting the most compelling evidence to make your point.

Accomplishing Actions

Now that you’ve outlined your purpose, goals, and evidence, how exactly will you set out to accomplish those goals? Considering what actions you hope your speech will provoke will further guide you in the process of carefully selecting every word and sentence that brings you closer to realizing those goals.

Assessing Conclusions

Once you’ve written your speech, will your audience come to the same logical conclusion as you? Assessing the ways in which your audience will come to their own conclusions about your material will influence all the other pathways of critical thinking about your speech. You can then go back and tailor your evidence and content more appropriately so that your audience reaches the same conclusions you set out to present.

In sum, critical thinking is a vital part of the speechwriting and public-speaking process, a skill that you should work to develop in order to craft effective speeches.

10.1.3: Components of a Speech: Main Points, Introduction, Conclusion, and Transitions

Learning Objective

Name the different components of a speech

Key Points

• Composing a speech is different from writing an essay. Write with listeners in mind, not readers.
• The bulk of a speech is different from the body of an essay. An essay is a careful, detailed scaffold that builds points over multiple pages, whereas a speech should stick to a few overarching points or themes.
• Public speakers can emphasize transition points with visual aids, body language, vocal delivery, and transitional words and phrases.

Key Term

transition

The process of change from one form, state, style, or place to another.

Components of a Speech: Main Points, Introduction, Conclusion, and Transitions

A speech is more than simply an essay that is read aloud. Listening to a speaker is inherently different from reading a page, and public speakers should keep that difference in mind as they prepare their work.

A traditional academic essay consists of an introduction, a body with alternating concrete details and commentary, and a conclusion. The role of the introduction and conclusion are similar in speeches and essays, but the “body” is a different matter. Break free of the essay mindset, and try to think of a speech as the sum of four components: the main points, introduction, conclusion, and transitions. What’s the difference? Read on to see what is special about the components of a speech.

Main Points

Thinking of “main points” rather than a “body” can help speakers remember to keep it simple. A restless audience may not have patience for the predictable, orderly progression of concrete details and commentary that is typical in the body of an academic essay. Above all, communicate a few important points!

Introduction

The introduction should get the audience’s attention, describe the topic, state the thesis or purpose, and give an overview of the speech and its main points. Open with a detailed map of your speech–giving good directions in the beginning will save your audience from getting lost along the way.

Conclusion

The conclusion should summarize main points and state a strong thesis. Remember that many people struggle with auditory learning, and consequently have trouble focusing on spoken words. Your listeners may not put everything together on their own, so you should make it easier for them by summarizing your argument and reviewing central ideas in the conclusion.

Transitions

A transition is a change or shift from one topic to another. It may be surprising to see that transitions are one of the four key components of a speech. Academic writers tend to think of transitions as important stylistic elements rather than essential building blocks. However, transitions are crucial for public speakers, since speakers need to compensate for the loss of visual formatting. On a written page, formatting provides a helpful road map: the reader sees topic headings, paragraph breaks, and other visual cues that signal transitions naturally. Speakers can replicate these cues and signal transitions using visual aids and body language, but it will take more conscious effort than simply hitting “enter” to create a paragraph break. Speakers can emphasize transition points with visual aids, body language, vocal delivery, and transitional words and phrases.

Visual Aids for Transitions

Visual aids such as slides and handouts are a great way to guide the audience through your transitions. A slide or handout with topic headings printed on it is a good road map for a speech, preparing the audience for any twists and turns that may come up.

Transition Words and Phrases

These words and phrases signal a change, giving the audience a “heads up” about an upcoming transition:

Connecting:

• additionally
• also
• again
• moreover
• furthermore
• coupled with
• for example
• for instance
• likewise
• similarly
• specifically
• indeed
• in fact

Contrasting:

• however
• although
• but
• nevertheless
• on one hand
• on the other hand
• besides
• yet
• on the contrary
• conversely
• comparatively

Concluding:

• overall
• above all
• therefore
• thus
• accordingly
• consequently
• in conclusion
• finally
• in essence
• in other words
• in short

10.1.4: Patterns of Organization: Informative, Persuasive, and Commemorative

Learning Objective

Discuss the goals of informative, persuasive, and commemorative speeches

Key Points

• When you begin organizing your speech, determine what your broader purpose is–to inform, persuade, or commemorate.
• Keep the purpose of your speech in mind as you try different structural models.
• Different structures are suited to different purposes, and you may have to experiment with a few models before you find the right one for your speech.

Key Terms

persuasive speech

A persuasive speech makes a convincing case for its position or viewpoint.

commemorative speech

A commemorative speech honors, celebrates, or remembers its subject.

informative speech

An informative speech educates the audience about its topic.

Patterns of Organization:

As you organize your main points, keep your “big picture” goal in mind. Are you trying to inform your listeners about an issue? Or trying to persuade them to share your opinion? Perhaps you are commemorating an event?

Different goals call for different narrative structures and you may need to try a few models before you find one that suits. To aid your trial-and-error process, refer to the list of structural models in the previous chapter for ideas. If you haven’t looked at these recently, it may be helpful to review “Ordering Main Points” before reading on. The following provides examples of some of these in action.

Informative

An informative speech should educate the audience about its topic. These speeches are not argumentative—they describe, announce, or explain their subject without making a case or taking sides.

Catering to the audience’s needs is important in any speech, but it is crucial in an informative speech. This type of speech relies on the value of the information itself, without the added appeal of a conversion experience or an emotional catharsis. Make sure your information will be useful and interesting to your audience!

Here are some sample topic statements that illustrate different approaches to framing an informative speech:

Cause and Effect

• Consumers listed rising gas prices and falling prices for electric vehicles as the main reasons behind their new interest in electric cars.

Compare and Contrast

• Studies have found major demographic differences between consumers who would consider buying electric cars and those who would not, but both groups still share the same concerns.

Categorical

• Market research shows that consumers weigh three main issues when they consider buying an electric car: purchase price, convenience, and long-term cost savings.

Chronological

• The market for electric cars has evolved significantly in the years between its invention in the late nineteenth century and the mass-production of electric cars today.

Biographical

• Belgian inventor, Camille Jenatzy, combined solid engineering skills with a flair for publicity stunts to build a successful electric vehicle company in the 1890s.

Persuasive

A persuasive speech should make a convincing case for its position. While some are intended to win passive agreement from the audience, others encourage immediate action. For example, a speech arguing that drug-resistant bacteria strains are a serious problem seeks only passive agreement. However, if the speech went one step further and urged listeners to reduce their own consumption of antibiotics, it would belong to the second category.

If you want your audience to do something, end your speech with a call to action and explain how your listeners could help the cause.

These thesis statements about antibiotic-resistant bacteria illustrate different structural models for persuasive speaking:

Cause and Effect

• The U.S. industry standard of giving daily antibiotics to healthy livestock promotes the creation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Problem-Cause-Solution

• Dangerous bacteria are adapting to resist antibiotics on under-regulated U.S. farms. The FDA should scrap its useless “voluntary guidelines” for agribusiness and impose legally-binding restrictions on the practice of feeding antibiotics to healthy animals.

Compare and Contrast

• The European Union banned the routine feeding of antibiotics to livestock as part of its quest to fight antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Compared to the strict regulations in other industrialized nations, the U.S. policy of trusting agri-businesses to regulate themselves seems outdated and irresponsible.

Categorical

• The case for legally-binding restrictions on agricultural consumption of antibiotics should be evaluated in terms of its costs, benefits, and practical feasibility.

Chronological

• The European Union banned the practice of routinely feeding antibiotics to healthy livestock in 2004. Since then, calls for similar legislation in the U.S. have become increasingly urgent as new studies warn of public health risks from antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Biographical

• Dr. Marc Sprenger of the European Centre for Disease Control and Prevention draws on his experience as a doctor and epidemiologist to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Commemorative

A commemorative speech should honor, celebrate, or remember its subject. These sample statements of purpose memorialize different aspects of the Titanic:

Cause and Effect

• The sinking of the Titanic inspired a new wave of maritime safety laws. My panel will discuss the life-saving provisions we owe to that tragedy.

Compare and Contrast

• The passenger carrier Lusitania sank only three years after the Titanic and claimed nearly as many lives. However, the legend of the Titanic overshadows the Lusitania’s story. When I compare these two tragedies, I find myself asking—how different are they, really?

Categorical

• Are we justified in our nostalgia for a bygone era of chivalry? Behavioral economists have taken one step toward answering this question, using data from the Titanic and the Lusitania to study social norms in disaster responses. How many men actually gave up lifeboat seats to women and children? I will address these questions by analyzing the effects of age, gender, ticket class, and family structure on an individual’s chance of surviving one of these disasters.

Chronological

• After the Titanic sank in 1912, the White Star Line spent four years in arbitration before reaching a deal to cover 16 million in legal claims with a settlement of 664,000. Let’s give that controversial legal battle a retrial from beginning to end to see if the settlement is actually a fair outcome.

Biographical

• Tonight, we are gathered to celebrate Eva Hart, who was only seven years old when she sat on a lifeboat watching the Titanic sink into the sea with her father on board. The experience left her with terrible nightmares, but she overcame her fears and lived a full life as a singer, politician, and magistrate.

While informative speeches explain, educate and describe; persuasive speeches raise the stakes by using information to influence the audience; commemorative speeches assume a shared emotional connection to the subject.

10.1.5: Building a Speech: Starting with an Outline

Learning Objective

Describe the process and methods for creating a speech outline

Key Points

• If you are having trouble writing your outline, try brainstorming first.
• A topic outline, or a general list of topics, evidence, quotes, and other details, is a good way to organize your main points and create a general overview of the speech.
• If you want to make an outline that includes text from the actual speech, write a sentence outline.

Key Terms

sentence outline

A sentence outline expresses the central ideas of a speech in complete sentences.

topic outline

A topic outline is a hierarchical list of a speech’s main points. Topic outlines use keywords and short phrases rather than complete sentences.

outline

A list used to present the main points or topics of a given subject, often used as a rough draft or summary of the content of a document.

Building a Speech: Starting with an Outline

It is always a good idea to make an outline before you begin writing a speech. An outline is a structural plan that lists main points, summarizes claims, and serves as a guide for the writing process. Working from an outline can help you organize your speech and put supporting elements, such as definitions and supporting evidence, in order. Some outlines are minimal, providing a quick sketch of a speech’s main points. Other outlines are very detailed, filling in a skeleton of topic headings with topic sentences, pieces of evidence, and transitions.

Many students are familiar with outlining techniques from academic writing classes. Outlining a speech is similar, but there is one key difference: speechwriters can use the outlining process to create prompts to aid with delivering the speech. Some speakers like to use handwritten notes, others use cue-cards, still others read from a printed script, and some experienced speakers don’t use any prompts at all. Ideally, with practice, you will avoid reading a script word-for-word—burying your face in papers for the entirety of the speech will limit your ability to engage the audience. However, minimal prompts such as cue cards and outline-style notes may help you stay on topic and remember main points. Whether or not you plan to use prompts, creating an outline is a great way to refine your argument—and you can always ignore it once you begin writing.

Brainstorming

Many speakers like to brainstorm before making an outline. Brainstorming, which involves techniques such as creating “idea maps” or flowcharts that connect ideas and evidence, is less formal and structured than outlining. It is a great place to begin if you’re having a hard time settling on a definite plan for your speech.

Topic Outline

A topic outline is a hierarchical list of a speech’s main points. Topic outlines tend to use keywords and short phrases rather than complete sentences. A topic outline is fragmentary—it serves as a prompt, rather than a draft of material to use in the actual speech.

Sentence Outline

A sentence outline expresses the central ideas of a speech in complete sentences. Sentence outlines are more detailed than topic outlines, but less detailed than first drafts.