12.1: The Princes of Rus

12.1.1: Rurik and the Foundation of Rus’

Learning Objective

Understand the key aspects of Rurik’s rise to power and the establishment of Kievan Rus’

Key Points

• Rurik and his followers likely originated in Scandinavia and were related to Norse Vikings.
• The Primary Chronicle is one of the few written documents available that tells us how Rurik came to power.
• Local leaders most likely invited Rurik to establish order in the Ladoga region around 862, beginning a powerful legacy of Varangian leaders.
• The capital of Kievan Rus’ moved from Novgorod to Kiev after Rurik’s successor, Oleg, captured this southern city.

Key Terms

Primary Chronicle

A text written in the 12th century that relates a detailed history of Rurik’s rise to power.

Varangians

Norse Vikings who established trade routes throughout Eurasia and eventually established a powerful dynasty in Russia.

Rurik Dynasty

The founders of Kievan Rus’ who stayed in power until 1598 and established the first incarnation of a unified Russia.

Rurik

Rurik
(also spelled Riurik) was a Varangian chieftain who arrived in the
Ladoga region in modern-day Russia in 862. He built the Holmgard
settlement near Novgorod in the 860s and founded the first
significant dynasty in Russian history called the Rurik Dynasty.
Rurik and his heirs also established a significant geographical and
political formation known as Kievan Rus’, the first incarnation of
modern Russia. The Rurik rulers continued to rule Russia into the
16th century and the mythology surrounding the man Rurik is often
referred to as the official beginning of Russian history.

Primary
Chronicle

The
identity of the mythic leader Rurik remains obscure and unknown. His
original birthplace, family history, and titles are shrouded in
mystery with very few historical clues. Some 19th-century scholars
attempted to identify him as Rorik of Dorestad (a Viking-Age trading
outpost situated in the northern part of modern-day Germany).
However, no concrete evidence exists to confirm this particular
origin story. 

A page from the Primary Chronicle or The Tale of Bygone Years

This rare written document was created in the 12th century and provides the most promising clues as to the arrival of Rurik in Ladoga.

The text includes an illustration depicting Oleg of Novgorod’s campaign against Constantinople.

The
debate also continues as to how Rurik came to control the Novgorod
region. However, some clues are available from the Primary Chronicle. This document is also known as The
Tale of Bygone Years
and was compiled in Kiev around 1113 by the monk Nestor. It relates
the history of Kievan Rus’ from 850 to 1110 with various updates and
edits made throughout the 12th century by scholarly monks. It is
difficult to untangle legend from fact, but this document provides the most promising clues regarding Rurik. The Primary Chronicle contends
the Varangians were a Viking group, most likely from Sweden or
northern Germany, who controlled trade routes across northern Russia
and tied together various cultures across Eurasia.

A monument celebrating the millennial anniversary of the arrival of Rurik in Russia

This modern interpretation of Rurik illustrates his powerful place in Russian history and lore.

The monument depicts Rurik in full armor holding a shield in his right hand and a sword in his left hand.

The
various tribal groups, including Chuds, Eastern Slavs, Merias, Veses,
and Krivichs, along the northern trade routes near Novgorod often
cooperated with the Varangian Rus’ leaders. But in the late 850s they rose up in
rebellion, according to the Primary Chronicle.
However, soon after this rebellion, the local tribes near the
Novgorod region began to experience internal disorder and conflict. These
events prompted local tribal leaders to invite Rurik and his
Varangian leaders back to the region in 862 to reinstate peace and
order. This moment in history is known as the Invitation
of the Varangians
and is commonly regarded as the starting point of official Russian
history.

Development
of Kievan Rus’

According
to legend, at the call of the local tribal leaders Rurik, along with his
brothers Truvor and Sineus, founded the Holmgard settlement in Ladoga. This
settlement is supposed to be at the site of modern-day Novgorod. However, newer
archeological evidence suggests that Novgorod was not regularly
settled until the 10th century, leading some to speculate that
Holmgard refers to a smaller settlement just southeast of the city.
The founding of Holmgard signaled a new era in Russian history and
the three brothers became the famous founders of the first Rus’
ruling dynasty.

Kievan Rus’ in 1015

The expansion and shifting borders of Kievan Rus’ become apparent when looking at this map, which includes the two centers of power in Novgorod and Kiev.

The map shows that at its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, Kievan Rus’ stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the Taman Peninsula in the east, uniting the majority of East Slavic tribes.

Rurik
died in 879 and his successor, Oleg, continued the Varangian Rus’
expansion in 882 by taking the southern city of Kiev from the Khasars
and establishing the medieval state of Kievan Rus’. The capital
officially moved to Kiev at this point. With this shift in power,
there were two distinct capitals in Kievan Rus’, the northern seat of
Novgorod and the southern center in Kiev. In Kievan Rus’ tradition,
the heir apparent would oversee the northern site of Novgorod while
the ruling Rus’ king stayed in Kiev. Over the next 100 years local
tribes consolidated and unified under the Rurik Dynasty, although
local fractures and cultural differences continued to play a
significant role in the attempt to maintain order under Varangian rule.

12.1.2: Vladimir I and Christianization

Learning Objective

Outline the shift from pagan culture to Orthodox Christianity under the rule of Vladimir I

Key Points

• Vladimir I became the ruler of Kievan Rus’ after overthrowing his brother Yaropolk in 978.
• Vladimir I formed an alliance with Basil II of the Byzantine Empire and married his sister Anna in 988.
• After his marriage Vladimir I officially changed the state religion to Orthodox Christianity and destroyed pagan temples and icons.
• He built the first stone church in Kiev in 989, called the Church of the Tithes.

Key Terms

Constantinople

The capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Perun

The pagan thunder god that many locals, and possibly Vladimir I, worshipped before Christianization.

Basil II

The Byzantine emperor who encouraged Vladimir to convert to Christianity and offered a political marriage alliance with his sister, Anna.

Vladimir I

Vladimir
I, also known as Vladimir the Great or Vladimir Sviatoslavich the
Great, ruled Kievan Rus’ from 980 to 1015 and is famous for
Christianizing this territory during his reign. Before he gained the
throne in 980, he had been the Prince of Novgorod while his father,
Sviatoslav of the Rurik Dynasty, ruled over Kiev. During his rule as
the Prince of Novgorod in the 970s, and by the time Vladimir claimed
power after his father’s death, he had consolidated power between
modern-day Ukraine and the Baltic Sea. He also successfully bolstered
his frontiers against incursions from Bulgarian, Baltic, and Eastern
nomads during his reign.

Early
Myths of Christianization

The
original Rus’ territory was comprised of hundreds of small towns and
regions, each with its own beliefs and religious practices. Many of
these practices were based on pagan and localized traditions. The
first mention of any attempts to bring Christianity to Rus’ appears
around 860. The Byzantine Patriarch Photius penned a letter in the year 867 that described the Rus’ region right after the Rus’-Byzantine War
of 860. According to Photius, the people of the region appeared
enthusiastic about the new religion and he claims to have sent a
bishop to convert the population. However, this low-ranking official
did not successfully convert the population of Rus’ and it would take
another twenty years before a significant change in religious
practices would come about.

The
stories regarding these first Byzantine missions to Rus’ during the
860s vary greatly and there is no official record to substantiate the
claims of the Byzantine patriarchs. Any local people in small
villages who embraced Christian practices would have had to contend with
fears of change from their neighbors.

Vladimir
I and His Rise to Power

The
major player in the Christianization of the Rus’ world is
traditionally considered Vladimir I. He was born in 958, the youngest
of three sons, to the Rus’ king Sviatoslav. He ascended to the
position of Prince of Novgorod around 969 while his oldest brother,
Yaropolk, became the designated heir to the throne in Kiev. Sviatoslav
died in 972, leaving behind a fragile political scene among his three
sons. Vladimir was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after
Yaropolk murdered their brother Oleg and violently took control of
Rus’.

Vladimir I

A Christian representation of Vladimir I, who was the first Rus’ leader to officially bring Christianity to the region.

Vladimir
fled to his kinsman Haakon Sigurdsson, who ruled Norway at the time.
Together they gathered an army with the intent to regain control of
Rus’ and establish Vladimir as the ruler. In 978, Vladimir returned
to Kievan Rus’ and successfully recaptured the territory. He also
slew his brother Yaropolk in Kiev in the name of treason and, in
turn, became the ruler of all of Kievan Rus’.

Constantinople
and Conversion

Vladimir
spent the next decade expanding his holdings, bolstering his military
might, and establishing stronger borders against outside invasions.
He also remained a practicing pagan during these first years of his
rule. He continued to build shrines to pagan gods, traveled with
multiple wives and concubines, and most likely continued to promote the worship of the thunder god Perun. However, the Primary Chronicle (one
of the few written documents about this time) states that in 987
Vladimir decided to send envoys to investigate the various religions
neighboring Kievan Rus’.

According
to the limited documentation from the time, the envoys that came back
from Constantinople reported that the festivities and the presence of
God in the Christian Orthodox faith were more beautiful than anything
they had ever seen, convincing Vladimir of his future religion.

Another
version of events claims that Basil II of Byzantine needed a military
and political ally in the face of a local uprising near
Constantinople. In this version of the story, Vladimir demanded a
royal marriage in return for his military help. He also announced he
would Christianize Kievan Rus’ if he was offered a desirable marriage
tie. In either version of events, Vladimir vied for the hand of Anna,
the sister of the ruling Byzantine emperor, Basil II. In order to
marry her he was baptized in the Orthodox faith with the name Basil,
a nod to his future brother-in-law.

17th-century Church of the Tithes

The original stone Church of the Tithes collapsed from fire and sacking in the 12th century. However, two later versions were erected and destroyed in the 17th and 19th centuries.

He
returned to Kiev with his bride in 988 and proceeded to destroy all
pagan temples and monuments. He also built the first stone church in
Kiev named the Church of the Tithes starting in 989. These moves confirmed a
deep political alliance between the Byzantine Empire and Rus’ for years to come. 

Baptism
of Kiev

On
his return in 988, Vladimir baptized his twelve sons and many boyars
in official recognition of the new faith. He also sent out a message
to all residents of Kiev, both rich and poor, to appear at the
Dnieper River the following day. The next day the residents
of Kiev who appeared were baptized in the river while Orthodox
priests prayed. This event became known as the Baptism of Kiev. 

Monument of Saint Vladimir in Kiev 

This statue sits close to the site of the original Baptism of Kiev.

Pagan
uprisings continued throughout Kievan Rus’ for at least another
century. Many local populations violently rejected the new religion
and a particularly brutal uprising occurred in Novgorod in 1071.
However, Vladimir became a symbol of the Russian Orthodox religion, and when he died in 1015 his body parts were distributed throughout
the country to serve as holy relics.

12.1.3: Yaroslav the Wise

Learning Objective

Outline the key elements of Yaroslav the Wise’s reign and cultural influence

Key Points

• Yaroslav I came to power after a bloody civil war between brothers. 
• He captured the Kievan throne because of the devotion of the Novgorodian and Varangian troops to his cause.
• Grand Prince Yaroslav was the first Kievan ruler to codify legal customs into the Pravda Yaroslava.
• He bolstered borders and encouraged political alliances with other major European powers during his reign.

Key Terms

primogeniture

A policy that designates the oldest son as the heir to the throne upon the death of the father.

Novgorod Republic

The northern stronghold of Kievan Rus’ where Yaroslav gained early support for his cause.

Yaroslav the Wise

Yaroslav
the Wise was the Grand Prince of Kiev from 1016 until his death in
1954. He was also vice-regent of Novgorod from 1010 to 1015 before
his father, Vladimir the Great, died. During his reign he was known
for spreading Christianity to the people of Rus’, founding the first
monasteries in the country, encouraging foreign alliances, and translating Greek texts in Church Slavonic. He also created some of the
first legal codes in Kievan Rus’. These accomplishments during his
lengthy rule granted him the title of Yaroslav the Wise in early
chronicles of his life, and his legacy endures in both political and
religious Russian history.

Youth
and Rise to Power

Yaroslav
was the son of the Varangian Grand Prince Vladimir the Great and most
likely his second son with Rogneda of Polotsk. His youth remains
shrouded in mystery. Evidence from the Primary Chronicle and
examination of his skeleton suggests he is one of the youngest sons
of Vladimir, and possibly a son from a different mother. He was most
likely born around the year 978.

Facial reconstruction of Yaroslav I by Mikhail Gerasimov

He
was set as vice-regent of Novgorod in 1010, as befitted a senior heir
to the throne. In this same time period Vladimir the Great granted
the Kievan throne to his younger son, Boris. Relations were strained
in this family. Yaroslav refused to pay Novgorodian tribute to Kiev
in 1014, and only Vladimir’s death in 1015 prevented a severe war
between these two regions. However, the
next few years were spent in a bitter civil war between the brothers.
Yarsolav was vying for the seat in Kiev against his brother
Sviatopolk I, who was supported by Duke Boleslaw I of Chrobry. In the
ensuing years of carnage, three of his brothers were murdered (Boris,
Gleb, and Svyatoslav). Yaroslav won the first battle at Kiev against
Sviatopolk in 1016 and Sviatopolk was forced to flee to
Poland.

After
this significant triumph Yaroslav’s ascent to greatness began, and he
granted freedoms and privileges to the Novgorod Republic, who had
helped him gain the Kievan throne. These first steps also most likely
led to the first legal code in Kievan Rus’ under Yaroslav. He was
chronicled as Yaroslav the Wise in retellings of these events because
of his even-handed dealing with the wars, but it is highly possible
he was involved in the murder of his brothers and other gruesome acts of war. 

Wise
Reign

The
civil war did not completely end in 1016. Sviatopolk returned in 1018
and retook Kiev. However, Varangian and Novgorodian troops recaptured
the capital and Sviatopolk fled to the West never to return. Another
fraternal conflict arose in 1024 when another brother of Yaroslav’s,
Mstislav of Chernigov, attempted to capture Kiev. After this conflict, the brothers split the Kievan Rus’ holdings, with Mstislav ruling
over the region left of the Dnieper River.

Yaroslav
the Wise was instrumental in defending borders and expanding the
holdings of Kievan Rus’. He protected the southern borders from
nomadic tribes, such as the Pechenegs, by constructing a line of
military forts. He also successfully laid claim to Chersonesus in the
Crimea and came to a peaceful agreement with the Byzantine Empire
after many years of conflict and disagreements over land holdings.

Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev

This iconic cathedral fell into disrepair and was almost destroyed during the Soviet era, but it was saved and restored to its former glory.

Yaroslav
the Wise garnered his thoughtful reputation due to his prolific years
in power. He was a ruler that loved literature, religion, and the
written language. His many accomplishments included:

• Building the Saint Sophia Cathedral and the first monasteries in Russia, named
  Saint George and Saint Irene.

• Founding a library and a school at the Saint Sophia Cathedral and
  encouraging the translation of Greek texts into Church Slavonic.

• Developing a more established hierarchy within the Russian Orthodox
  Church, including a statute outlining the rights of the clergy and
  establishing the sobor of bishops.

• Beautifying Kiev with elements of design taken from the Byzantine
  Empire, including the Golden Gate of Kiev.

• Compiling the first book of laws in Kievan Rus’, called the Pravda
  Yaroslava. This first compilation set down clear laws that reflected
  the feudal landscape of the 11th century. This initial legal code
  would live on and be refined into the Russkaya Pravda in the 12th
  century.
• Establishing primogeniture, which meant that his eldest son would
  succeed him as Grand Prince over Novgorod and Kiev, hoping that
  future conflict between his children would be avoided.

Golden Gate of Kiev in 2016

This important monument was one of the great architectural accomplishments created under Yaroslav the Wise, and now features a monument to the ruler, seen in the foreground.

Family
and Death

Yaroslav
married Ingegerd Olofsdotter, the daughter of the king of Sweden, in
1019. He had many sons and encouraged them to remain on good terms,
after all the years of warfare and bloodshed with his own brothers.
He also married three of his daughters to European royalty.
Elizabeth, Anna, and Anastasia married Harald III of
Norway, Henry I of France, and Andrew I of Hungary respectively. These marriages
forged powerful alliances with European states.

Daughters of Yaroslav the Wise

This 11th-century fresco in Saint Sophia’s Cathedral shows four of Yaroslav’s daughter, probably Anne, Anastasia, Elizabeth, and Agatha.

The
Grand Prince Yaroslav I died in 1054 and was buried in Saint Sophia’s
Cathedral. His expansion of culture and military might, along with
his unification of Kievan Rus’, left a powerful impression on Russian
history. Many towns and monuments remain dedicated to this leader.

12.1.4: The Mongol Threat

Learning Objective

Describe the attacks by th Mongols on the Russian principality

Key Points

• The major principalities of Kievan Rus’ became increasingly fractured and independent after the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054.
• The first Mongol attempt to capture Kievan territories occurred in 1223 at the Battle of the Kalka River. 
• The Mongol forces began a heavy military campaign on Kievan Rus’ in 1237 under the rule of Batu Khan.
• Kiev was sacked and taken in 1240, starting a long era of Mongol rule in the region.

Key Terms

Tatar yoke

The name given to the years of Mongol rule in Kievan Rus’, which meant heavy taxation and the possibility of local invasions at any time.

Golden Horde

The western section of the Mongol Empire that included Kievan Rus’ and parts of Eastern Europe.

Sarai

The new capital of the Mongol Empire in the southern part of Kievan Rus’.

Mongol Invasion

The Mongol invasion of the Kievan Rus’
principalities began in 1223 at the Battle of the Kalka River.
However, the Mongol armies ended up focusing their military might on
other regions after this bloody meeting, only to return in 1237. For
the next three years the Mongol forces took over the major princely
cities of Kievan Rus’ and finally forced most principalities to
submit to foreign rule and taxation. Rus’ became part of what is
known as the Golden Horde, the western extension of the Mongol
Empire located in the eastern Slavic region. Some of the new taxes and rules of law lasted until 1480 and
had a lasting impact on the shape and character of modern Russia.

Fragmented Kievan Rus’

After the end of the unifying reign of
Yaroslav the Wise, Kievan Rus’ became fragmented and power was focused
on smaller polities. The great ruler’s death in 1054 brought about
major power struggles between his sons and princes in outlying
provinces. By the 12th century, after years of fighting amongst the princes,
power was centered around smaller principalities. This unsettled
trend left Kievan Rus’ much more fragmented. Power was
passed down to the eldest in the local ruling dynasty and cities were
responsible for their own defenses. The Byzantine Empire was also
facing major upheaval, which meant a central Russian ally and trading
partner was weakened, which, in turn, weakened the strength and wealth of Kievan
Rus’.

The principalities of Kievan Rus’ at its height, 1054-1132

The princely regions were relatively unified into the 12th century but slowly separated and became more localized as fights over regions and power among the nobility continued.

The map shows eleven principalities covering a large stretch of land including portions of modern-day Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Belarus, Romania, Maldova, Ukraine, and Russia.

Mongol Invasion

The already fragile alliances between
the smaller Rus’ principalities faced further tension when the
nomadic invaders, the Mongols, arrived on the scene during this
fractured era. These invaders originated on the steppes of central
Asia and were unified under the infamous warrior and leader Genghis
Khan. The Mongols began to expand their power across the continent.
The Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 initiated the first attempt of
the Mongol forces to capture Kievan Rus’. It was a bloody battle
that ended with the execution of Mstislav of Kiev executed the Kievan forces
greatly weakened. The Mongols were superior in their military tactics
and stretched the Rus’ forces considerably, however after executing
the Kievan prince, the forces went back to Asia to rejoin Genghis
Khan. However, the Mongol threat was far from over, and they returned
in 1237.

The Sacking of Suzdal in 1238 by Batu Khan

This 16th-century depiction of the Mongol invasion highlights the bloodshed and military might of the invaders. 

A 16th-century representation of the sacking of the Kievan principality of Suzdal by Batu Kahn in 1238.

Over the course of the years 1237 and
1238, the Mongol leader, Batu Khan, led his 35,000 mounted archers to
burn down Moscow and Kolomna. Then he split his army into smaller
units that tackled the princely polities one at a time. Only Novgorod
and Pskov were spared major destruction during this time. Refugees
from the southern principalities, where destruction was widespread
and devastating, were forced to flee to the harsh northern forests,
where good soil and resources were scarce. The final victory for Batu
Khan came in December 1240 when he stormed the great capital of Kiev
and prevailed.

Tatar Rule and the Golden Horde

The Mongols, also known as the Tatars,
built their new capital, Sarai, in the south along the Volga River.
All the major principalities, such as Novgorod, Smolensk, and Pskov,
submitted to Mongol rule. The age of this economic and cultural rule
is often called the Tatar yoke, but over the course of 200 years, it
was a relatively peaceful rule. The Tatars followed in the footsteps
of Genghis Khan and refrained from settling the entire region or
forcing local populations to adopt specific religious or cultural
traditions. However, Rus’ principalities paid tribute and taxes to
the Mongol rulers regularly, under the umbrella of the Golden Horde (the western portion of the Mongol Empire).
Around 1259 this tribute was organized into a census that was
enforced by the locals Rus’ princes on a regular schedule, collected,
and taken to the capital of Sarai for the Mongol leaders.

A map of the Mongol Empire as it expanded

This illustration shows the rapid expansion of the Mongol Empire as it traveled west into what became known as the Golden Horde.

Effects of Mongol Rule

Despite the fact that the established
Tatar rule was relatively peaceful, demanding taxation and the
devastation from years of invasion left many major cities in
disrepair for decades. It took years to rebuild Kiev and Pskov.
However, Novgorod continued to flourish and the relatively new city
centers of the Moscow and Tver began to prosper. Another downside to the Tatar presence was the continued threat of invasion and destruction, which happened sporadically during their presence. Each new military invasion meant heavy tolls on the local population and years of reconstruction.

Culturally, the Mongol rule brought
about major shifts during the first century of their presence.
Extensive postal road systems, military organization, and powerful
dynasties were established by Tatar alliances. Capital punishment and
torture also became more widespread during the years of Tatar rule.
Some noblemen also changed their names and adopted the Tatar
language, bringing about a shift in the aesthetic, linguistic, and
cultural ties of Russia life. Many scholars also note that the Mongol
rule was a major cause of the division of East Slavic people in Rus’
into three distinctive modern-day nations, Russia, Ukraine, and
Belarus.

12.1.5: Ivan I and the Rise of Moscow

Learning Objective

Outline the key points that helped Moscow become so powerful and how Ivan I accomplished these major victories

Key Points

• Moscow was considered a small trading outpost under the principality of Vladimir-Suzdal into the 13th century.
• Power struggles and constant raids under the Mongol Empire’s Golden Horde caused once powerful cities, such as Kiev, to struggle financially and culturally.
• Ivan I utilized the relative calm and safety of the northern city of Moscow to entice a larger population and wealth to move there.
• Alliances between Golden Horde leaders and Ivan I saved Moscow from many of the raids and destruction of other centers, like Tver.

Key Terms

Tver

A rival city to Moscow that eventually lost favor under the Golden Horde.

Grand Prince of Vladimir

The title given to the ruler of this northern province, where Moscow was situated.

The Rise of Moscow

Moscow was only a small trading outpost
in the principality of Vladimir-Suzdal in Kievan Rus’ before the
invasion of Mongol forces during the 13th century. However, due to
the unstable environment of the Golden Horde, and the deft leadership
of Ivan I at a critical time during the 13th century, Moscow became a
safe haven of prosperity during his reign. It also became the new
seat of power of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Ivan I

Ivan I (also known as Ivan Kalita) was born around 1288 to the
Prince of Moscow, Daniil Aleksandrovich. He was born during a time of
devastation and upheaval in Rus’. Kiev had been overtaken by the
invading Mongol forces in 1240, and most of the Rus’ principalities
had been absorbed into the Golden Horde of the Mongol Empire by the
time Ivan was born. He ascended to the seat of Prince of Moscow after
the death of his father, and then the death of his older brother
Yury.

Ivan I

He was born around 1288 and died in either 1340 or 1341, still holding the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir.

Portrait of Ivan I

Ivan I stepped into a role that had
already been expanded by his predecessors. Both his older brother and
his father had captured nearby lands, including Kolomna and Mozhaisk.
Yury had also made a successful alliance with the Mongol leader Uzbeg
Khan and married his sister, securing more power and advantages
within the hierarchy of the Golden Horde.

Ivan I continued the family tradition
and petitioned the leaders of the Golden Horde to gain the seat of
Grand Prince of Vladimir. His other three rivals, all princes of
Tver, had previously been granted the title in prior years. However they were all subsequently deprived of
the title and all three aspiring princes also eventually ended up murdered. Ivan
I, on the other hand, garnered the title from Khan Muhammad Ozbeg in 1328. This new title, which he kept until his death around 1340, meant he could collect taxes from the Russian lands as a ruling prince and position his tiny city as a major player in the Vladimir region.

Moscow’s Rise

During this time of upheaval, the tiny
outpost of Moscow had multiple advantages that repositioned this town
and set it up for future prosperity under Ivan I. Three major
contributing factors helped Ivan I relocate power to this area:

• It was situated in between other major
  principalities on the east and west so it was often protected from the more devastating invasions.

• This relative safety, compared to Tver
  and Ryazan, for example, started to bring in tax-paying citizens who
  wanted a safe place to build a home and earn a livelihood.

• Finally, Moscow was set up perfectly
  along the trade route from Novgorod to the Volga River, giving it an
  economic advantage from the start.

Ivan I also spurred on the growth of
Moscow by actively recruiting people to move to the region. In
addition, he bought the freedom of people who had been captured by
the extensive Mongol raids. These recruits further bolstered the
population of Moscow. Finally, he focused his attention on
establishing peace and routing out thieves and raiding parties in the
region, making for a safe and calm metaphorical island in a storm of
unsettled political and military upsets.

Kievan Rus’ 1220-1240

This map illustrates the power dynamics at play during the 13th century shortly before Ivan I was born. Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, sat to the southeast, while Moscow (not visible on this map) was tucked up in the northern forests of Vladimir-Suzdal.

The map’s cartouche reads,: “The Kylan Rus’ federation after the 12th century continued to disintegrate and Kylv itself lost its primacy: the city was sacked several times by feuding princes, most notably in 1169 by Andrei Bogliubskii. The quarreling between the princes left Rus’ including later Ukranian territory vulernable to foreign attacks, and the invasion of the Mongols or the Golden Horde in 1236-40 finally destroyed the state.”

Ivan I knew that the peace of his
region depended upon keeping up an alliance with the Golden Horde,
which he did faithfully. Moscow’s increased wealth during this era
also allowed him to loan money to neighboring principalities. These
regions then became indebted to Moscow, bolstering its political and financial position.

In addition, a few neighboring cities
and villages were subsumed into Moscow during the 1320s and 1330s,
including Uglich, Belozero, and Galich. These shifts slowly
transformed the tiny trading outpost into a bustling city center in
the northern forests of what was once Kievan Rus’.

Russian Orthodox Church and The Center
of Moscow

Ivan I committed some of Moscow’s new
wealth to building a splendid city center and creating an iconic
religious setting. He built stone churches in the center of Moscow
with his newly gained wealth. Ivan I also tempted one of the most important religious leaders in Rus’, the Orthodox
Metropolitan Peter, to the city of Moscow. Before the rule of the Golden Horde the original Russian Orthodox Church was based
in Kiev. After years of devastation, Metropolitan Peter transferred
the seat of power to Moscow where a new Renaissance of culture was blossoming.
This perfectly timed transformation of Moscow coincided with the
decades of devastation in Kiev, effectively transferring power to the
north once again.

Peter of Moscow and scenes from his life as depicted in a 15th-century icon

This religious leader helped bring cultural power to Moscow by moving the seat of the Russian Orthodox Church there during Ivan I’s reign.

One of the most lasting accomplishments of Ivan I was to petition the Khan based in Sarai to designate his son, who would become Simeon the Proud, as the heir to the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir. This agreement a line of succession that meant the ruling head of Moscow would almost always hold power over the principality of Vladimir, ensuring Moscow held a powerful position for decades to come.

12.2: The Grand Duchy of Moscow

12.2.1: The Formation of Russia

Ivan III became Grand Prince of Moscow in 1462 and proceeded to refuse the Tatar yoke, collect surrounding lands, and consolidate political power around Moscow. His son, Vasili III, continued in his footsteps marking an era known as the “Gathering of the Russian Lands.”

Learning Objective

Outline the key points that led to a consolidated northern region under Ivan III and Vasili III in Moscow

Key Points

• Moscow had risen to a powerful position in the north due to its location and relative wealth and stability during the height of the Golden Horde.
• Ivan III overtook Novgorod, along with his four brothers’ landholdings, which began a process consolidating power under the Grand Prince of Moscow.
• Ivan III was the first prince of Rus’ to style himself as the Tsar in the grand tradition of the Orthodox Byzantine Empire.
• Vasili III followed in his father’s footsteps and continued a regime of consolidating land and practicing domestic intolerance that suppressed any attempts to disobey the seat of Moscow.

Key Terms

Muscovite Sudebnik

The legal code crafted by Ivan III that further consolidated his power and outlined harsh punishments for disobedience.

Novgorod

Moscow’s most prominent rival in the northern region.

boyars

Members of the highest ruling class in feudal Rus’, second only to the princes.

Gathering of the Russian Lands

Ivan III was the first Muscovite prince
to consolidate Moscow’s position of power and successfully
incorporate the rival cities of Tver and Novgorod under the umbrella
of Moscow’s rule. These shifts in power in the Northern provinces
created the first semblance of a “Russian” state (though that name would not be utilized for another century). Ivan the Great
was also the first Rus’ prince to style himself a Tsar, thereby
setting up a strong start for his successor son, Vasili III. Between
the two leaders, what would become known as the “Gathering of the
Russian Lands” would occur and begin a new era of Russian history
after the Mongol Empire’s Golden Horde.

Ivan III and the End of the Golden
Horde

Ivan III Vasilyevich, also known as
Ivan the Great, was born in Moscow in 1440 and became Grand Prince of
Moscow in 1462. He ruled from this seat of power until his death in
1505. He came into power when Moscow had many economic and
cultural advantages in the norther provinces. His predecessors had
expanded Moscow’s holdings from a mere 600 miles to 15,000. The
seat of the Russian Orthodox Church was also centered in Moscow
starting in the 14th century. In addition, Moscow had long
been a loyal ally to the ruling Mongol Empire and had an optimal
position along major trade routes between Novgorod and the Volga River.

Ivan III

He held the title of Grand Prince of Moscow between 1462 and 1505.

Portrait of Ivan III

However, one of Ivan the Great’s most
substantial accomplishments was refusing the Tatar yoke (as the
Mongol Empire’s stranglehold on Rus’ lands has been called) in
1476. Moscow refused to pay its normal Golden Horde taxes starting in
that year, which spurred Khan Ahmed to wage war against the city in
1480. It took a number of months before the Khan retreated back to
the steppe. During the following year, internal fractures within the
Mongol Empire greatly weakened the hold of Mongol rulers on the
northeastern Rus’ lands , which effectively freed Moscow from its
old duties.

Moscow’s Land Grab

The other major political change that
Ivan III instigated was a major consolidation of power in the
northern principalities, often called the  “Gathering of the Russian
Lands.” Moscow’s primary rival, Novgorod, became Ivan the Great’s
first order of business. The two grand cities had been locked in
dispute for over a century, but Ivan III waged a harsh war that
forced Novgorod to cede its land to Moscow after many uprisings and
attempted alliances between Novgorod and Lithuania. The official
state document accepting Moscow’s rule was signed by Archbishop
Feofil of Novgorod in 1478. Any revolts that arose out of Novgorod
over the next decade were swiftly put down and any disobedient
Novgorodian royal family members were removed to Moscow or other
outposts to discourage further outbursts.

In addition to capturing his greatest
rival city, Ivan III also collected his four brothers’ local lands
over the course of his rule, further expanding and consolidating the
land under the power of the Grand Prince of Moscow. Ivan III also levied his political, economic, and military might over the course
of his reign to gain control of Yaroslavl, Rostov, Tver, and Vyatka,
forming one of the most unified political formations in the region
since Vladimir the Great. This new political formation was in contrast to centuries of local princes ruling over their regions relatively autonomously.

Palace of Facets pillar

This decadent pillar resides in the Palace of Facets built by Italian architects in stone in the mostly wooden Moscow Kremlin. This banquet hall was only one of many major architectural feats Ivan III built during his reign in Moscow. 

Ivan the Great also greatly shaped the
future of the Rus’ lands. These major shifts included:

• Styling himself the “Tsar and
  Autocrat” in Byzantine style, essentially stepping into the new leadership position in Orthodoxy after the fall of the Byzantine Empire. These changes
  also occurred after he married Sophia Paleologue of Constantinople,
  who had brought court and religious rituals from the Byzantine
  Empire.
• He stripped the boyars of their
  localized and state power and essentially created a sovereign state
  that paid homage to Moscow.
• He oversaw the creation of a new legal
  code, called Muscovite Sudebnik in 1497, which further consolidated
  his place as the highest ruler of the northern Rus’ lands and instated
  harsh penalties for disobedience, sacrilege, or attempts to undermine
  the crown.
• The princes of formerly powerful
  principalities now under Moscow’s rule were placed in the role of
  service nobility, rather than sovereign rulers as they once were.
• Ivan III’s power was partly due to
  his alliance with Russian Orthodoxy, which created an atmosphere of
  anti-Catholicism and stifled the chance to build more powerful
  western alliances.

Vasili III

Vasili III was the son of Sophia
Paleologue and Ivan the Great and the Grand Prince of Moscow from
1505 to 1533. He followed in his father’s footsteps and continued
to expand Moscow’s landholdings and political clout. He annexed,
Pskov, Volokolamsk, Ryazan, and Novgorod-Seversky during his reign.
His most spectacular grab for power was his capture of Smolensk, the
great stronghold of Lithuania. He utilized a rebellious ally in the
form of the Lithuanian prince Mikhail Glinski to gain this major
victory.

Vasili III 

This piece was created by a contemporary artist and depicts Vasili III as a scholar and leader.

Portrait of Vasili III

Vasili III also followed in his
father’s oppressive footsteps. He utilized alliances with the Orthodox Church to put down any rebellions or feudal disputes. He limited the
power of the boyars and the once-powerful Rurikid dynasties in newly
conquered provinces. He also increased the gentry’s landholdings,
once more consolidating power around Moscow. In general, Vasili III’s
reign was marked by an oppressive atmosphere; he carried out harsh
penalties for speaking out against the power structure or showing the slightest disobedience to the
crown.

12.2.2: Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV, or Ivan the Terrible, reigned from 1547 to 1584 and became the first tsar of Russia. His reign was punctuated with severe oppression and cultural and political expansion, leaving behind a complex legacy.

Learning Objective

Outline the key points of Ivan IV’s policies and examine the positive and negative aspects of his rule

Key Points

• Ivan IV is often known as Ivan the Terrible, even though the more correct translation is akin to Ivan the Fearsome or Ivan the Awesome.
• Ivan IV was the first Rus’ prince to title himself “Tsar of All the Russias” beginning the long tradition of rule under the tsars.
• Lands in the Crimea, Siberia, and modern-day Tatarstan were all subsumed into Russian lands under Ivan IV.
• The persecution of the boyars during Ivan IV’s reign began under the harsh regulations of the oprichnina.

Key Terms

oprichnina

A state policy enacted by Ivan IV that made him absolute monarch of much of the north and hailed in an era of boyar persecution. Ivan IV successfully grabbed large chunks of land from the nobility and created his own personal guard, the oprichniki, during this era.

Moscow Print Yard

The first publishing house in Russia, which was opened in 1553.

boyar

A member of the feudal ruling elite who was second only to the princes in Russian territories.

Ivan IV

Ivan
IV Vasileyevich is widely known as Ivan the Terrible or Ivan the
Fearsome. He was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and
reigned as the “Tsar of all the Russias” from 1547 until he
died in 1584. His complex years in power precipitated military
conquests, including Kazan and Astrakhan, that changed the shape and
demographic character of Russia forever. He also reshaped the
political formation of the Russian state, oversaw a cultural
Renaissance in Russia, and shifted power to the head of state, the
tsar, a title that had never before been given to a prince in the Rus’ lands.

Rise
to Power

Ivan
IV was born in 1530 to Vasili III and Elena Glinskaya. He
was three when he was named the Grand Prince of Moscow after his father’s
death. Some say his years as the child vice-regent of Moscow under manipulative boyar
powers shaped his views for life. In 1547, at the age of sixteen, he
was crowned “Tsar of All the Russias” and was the first
person to be coronated with that title. This title claimed the
heritage of Kievan Rus’ while firmly establishing a new unified
Russian state. He also married Anastasia Romanovna, which tied him to
the powerful Romanov family.

18th-century portrait of Ivan IV

Images of Ivan IV often display a prominent brow and a frowning mouth. 

Domestic
Innovations and Changes

Despite
Ivan IV’s reputation as a paranoid and moody ruler, he also
contributed to the cultural and political shifts that would shape
Russia for centuries. Among these initial changes in relatively
peaceful times he:

• Revised
  the law code, the Sudebnik of 1550, which initiated a standing army,
  known as the streltsy. This army would help him in future military
  conquests.
• Developed
  the Zemsky Sobor, a Russian parliament, along with the council of the
  nobles, known as the Chosen Council.
• Regulated
  the Church more effectively with the Council of the Hundred Chapters,
  which regulated Church traditions and the hierarchy.
• Established
  the Moscow Print Yard in 1553 and brought the first printing press to
  Russia.

• Oversaw
  the construction of St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow.

St. Basil’s Cathedral

This iconic structure was one cultural accomplishment created under Ivan IV’s rule.

Oprichnina
and Absolute Monarchy

The 1560s were difficult with Russia
facing drought and famine, along with a number of Tatar invasions, and
a sea-trading blockade from the Swedes and Poles.
Ivan IV’s wife, Anastasia, was also likely poisoned and died in 1560,
leaving Ivan shaken and, some sources say, mentally unstable. Ivan IV
threatened to abdicate and fled from Moscow in 1564. However, a group
of boyars went to beg Ivan to return in order to keep the peace. Ivan agreed to return with the understanding he would be
granted absolute power and then instituted what is known as the
oprichnina.

1911 painting by Apollinary Vasnetsov 

This painting represents people fleeing from the Oprichniki, the secret service and military oppressors of Ivan IV’s reign.

This
agreement changed the way the Russian state worked and began an era of oppression, executions, and state surveillance. It split the
Russian lands into two distinct spheres, with the northern region
around the former Novgorod Republic placed under the
absolute power of Ivan IV. The boyar council oversaw the rest of the
Russian lands. This new proclamation also started a wave of
persecution and against the boyars. Ivan IV executed, exiled, or
forcibly removed hundreds of boyars from power, solidifying his
legacy as a paranoid and unstable ruler.

Military
Conquests and Foreign Relations

Ivan
IV established a powerful trade agreement with England and even asked
for asylum, should he need it in his fights with the boyars, from
Elizabeth I. However, Ivan IV’s greatest legacy remains his
conquests, which reshaped Russia and pushed back Tatar powers who had been dominating and invading the region for centuries.

His
first conquest was the Kazan Khanate, which had been raiding the
northeast region of Russia for decades. This territory sits in
modern-day Tatarstan. A faction of Russian supporters were already
rising up in the region but Ivan IV led his army of 150,000 to battle
in June of 1552. After months of siege and blocking Kazan’s water
supply, the city fell in October. The conquest of the entire Kazan
Khanate reshaped relations between the nomadic people and the Russian
state. It also created a more diverse population under the fold of
the Russian state and the Church.

Ivan
IV also embarked on the Livonian War, which lasted 24 years. The war
pitted Russia against the Swedish Empire, the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth, and Poland. The Polish leader, Stefan Batory, was an
ally of the Ottoman Empire in the south, which was also in a
tug-of-war with Russia over territory. These two powerful entities on
each edge of Russian lands, and the prolonged wars, left the economy
in Moscow strained and Russian resources scarce in the 1570s.

Ivan
IV also oversaw two decisive territorial victories during his reign.
The first was the defeat of the Crimean horde, which meant the
southern lands were once again under Russian leadership. The second
expansion of Russian territory was headed by Cossack leader Yermak
Timofeyevich. He led expeditions into Siberian territories that had
never been under Russian rule. Between 1577 and 1580 many new
Siberian regions had reached agreements with Russian leaders,
allowing Ivan IV to style himself “Tsar of Siberia” in his last
years.

Ivan IV’s throne

This decadent throne mirrors Ivan the Terrible’s love of power and opulence.

Madness
and Legacy

Ivan
IV left behind a compelling and contradictory legacy. Even his
nickname “terrible” is a source for confusion. In Russian the
word grozny means “awesome,” “powerful” or “thundering,”
rather than “terrible” or “mad.” However, Ivan IV often
behaved in ruthless and paranoid ways that favors the less flattering interpretation. He persecuted the long-ruling
boyars and often accused people of attempting to murder him (which
makes some sense when you look at his family’s history). His often
reckless foreign policies, such as the drawn out Livonian War, left
the economy unstable and fertile lands a wreck. Legend also suggests he murdered his son Ivan Ivanovich, whom he had groomed for the
throne, in 1581, leaving the throne to his childless son Feodor
Ivanovich. However, his dedication to culture and innovation reshaped
Russia and solidified its place in the East.

12.2.3: The Time of Troubles

The Time of Troubles occurred between 1598 and 1613 and was caused by severe famine, prolonged dynastic disputes, and outside invasions from Poland and Sweden. The worst of it ended with the coronation of Michael I in 1613.

Learning Objective

Outline the distinctive features of the Time of Troubles and how they eventually ended

Key Points

• The Time of Troubles started with the death of the childless Tsar Feodor Ivanovich, which spurred an ongoing dynastic dispute.
• Famine between 1601 and 1603 caused massive starvation and further strained Russia.
• Two false heirs to the throne, known as False Dmitris, were backed by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that wanted to grab power in Moscow.
• Rurikid Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Novgorod merchant Kuzma Minin led the final resistance against Polish invasion that ended the dynastic dispute and reclaimed Moscow in 1613.

Key Terms

Feodor Ivanovich

The last tsar of the Rurik Dynasty, whose death spurred on a major dynastic dispute.

Dmitry Pozharsky

The Rurikid prince that successfully ousted Polish forces from Moscow.

Zemsky Sobor

A form of Russian parliament that met to vote on major state decisions, and was comprised of nobility, Orthodox clergy, and merchant representatives.

The Time of Troubles was an era of
Russian history dominated by a dynastic crisis and exacerbated
by ongoing wars with Poland and Sweden, as well as a devastating famine. It began with the death of the childless
last Russian Tsar of the Rurik Dynasty, Feodor Ivanovich, in 1598 and
continued until the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613. It
took another six years to end two of the wars that had started during
the Time of Troubles, including the Dymitriads against the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Famine and Unrest

At the death of
Feodor Ivanovich, the last Rurikid Tsar, in 1598, his brother-in-law and trusted advisor,
Boris Godunov, was elected his successor by the Zemsky Sobor (Great
National Assembly). Godunov was a leading boyar and had accomplished
a great deal under the reign of the mentally-challenged and childless
Feodor. However, his position as a boyar caused unrest among the Romanov clan who saw it as an affront to follow a lowly boyar. Due
to the political unrest, strained resources, and factions against his
rule, he was not able to accomplish much during his short reign,
which only lasted until 1605.

Tsar Boris Godunov

His short-lived reign was beset by famine and resistance from the boyars.

Portrait of Boris Godunov

While Godunov was attempting to keep
the country stitched together, a devastating famine swept across
Russian from 1601 to 1603. Most likely caused by a volcanic eruption
in Peru in 1600, the temperatures stayed well below normal during the
summer months and often went below freezing at night. Crops failed
and about two million Russians, a third of the population, perished
during this famine. This famine also caused people to flock to Moscow
for food supplies, straining the capital both socially and
financially.

Dynastic Uncertainty and False Dmitris

The troubles did not cease after the
famine subsided. In fact, 1603 brought about new political and
dynastic struggles. Feodor Ivanovich’s younger brother was
reportedly stabbed to death before the Tsar’s death, but some
people still believed he had fled and was alive. The first of the
nicknamed False Dmitris appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth in 1603 claiming he was the lost young brother of Ivan the Terrible.
Polish forces saw this pretender’s appearance as an opportunity to regain land and
influence in Russia and the some 4,000 troops comprised of Russian
exiles, Lithuanians, and Cossacks crossed the border and began what
is known as the Dymitriad wars.

Vasili IV of Russia

He was the last member of the Rurikid Dynasty to rule in Moscow between 1606 and 1610. 

Portrait of Vasili IV of Russia

False Dmitri was supported by enough
Polish and Russian rebels hoping for a rich reward that he was
married to Marina Mniszech and ascended to the throne in Moscow at
Boris Godunov’s death in 1605. Within a year Vasily Shuisky (a
Rurikid prince) staged an uprising against False Dmitri, murdered
him, and seized control of power in Moscow for himself. He ruled between 1606 and 1610 and was known as Vasili IV. However, the
boyars and mercenaries were still displeased with this new ruler. At
the same time as Shuisky’s ascent, a new False Dmitri appeared on the
scene with the backing of the Polish-Lithuanian magnates.

An Empty Throne and Wars

Shuisky retained power long enough to
make a treaty with Sweden, which spurred a worried Poland into
officially beginning the Polish-Muscovite War that lasted from 1605
to 1618. The struggle over who would gain control of Moscow became
entangled and complex once Poland became an acting participant.
Shuisky was still on the throne, both the second False Dmitri and the
son of the Polish king, Władysław, were attempting to take control.

None of the three pretenders succeeded,
however, when the Polish king himself, Sigismund III, decided he would take
the seat in Moscow.

Russia was stretched to its limit by
1611. Within the five years after Boris Godunov’s death powers had
shifted considerably:

• The boyars quarreled amongst themselves
  over who should rule Moscow while the throne remained empty.
• Russian Orthodoxy was imperiled and
  many Orthodox religious leaders were imprisoned.
• Catholic Polish forces occupied the
  Kremlin in Moscow and Smolensk.
• Swedish forces had taken over Novgorod
  in retaliation to Polish forces attempting to ally with Russia.
• Tatar raids continued in the south
  leaving many people dead and stretched for resources.

The End of Troubles

Two strong leaders arose out of the
chaos of the first decade of the 17th century to combat the Polish
invasion and settle the dynastic dispute. The powerful Novgordian
merchant Kuzma Minin along with the Rurikid Prince Dmitry Pozharsky
rallied enough forces to push back the Polish forces in Russia. The
new Russian rebellion first pushed Polish forces back to the Kremlin,
and between November 3rd and 6th (New Style) Prince Pozharsky had
forced the garrison to surrender in Moscow. November 4 is known as National
Unity Day, however it fell out of favor during Communism, only to be
reinstated in 2005.

The dynastic wars finally came to an
end when the Grand National Assembly elected Michael Romanov, the son
of the metropolitan Philaret, to the throne in 1613. The new Romanov Tsar, Michael I, quickly had the second False Dmitri’s son
and wife killed, to stifle further uprisings.

Michael I 

The first Romanov Tsar to be crowned in 1613.

Portrait of Michael I

Despite the end to internal unrest, the
wars with Sweden and Poland would last until 1618 and 1619
respectively, when peace treaties were finally enacted. These
treaties forced Russia to cede some lands, but the dynastic
resolution and the ousting of foreign powers unified most people in
Russia behind the new Romanov Tsar and started a new era.

12.2.4: The Romanovs

The Romanov Dynasty was officially founded at the coronation of Michael I in 1613. It was the second royal dynasty in Russia after the Rurikid princes of the Middle Ages. The Romanov name stayed in power until the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in 1917.

Learning Objective

Explain the rise of power of the House of Romanov and the first major Russian Tsars of this dynasty

Key Points

• The Romanovs were exiled during the Time of Troubles but brought back when Romanovs Patriarch Philaret and his son Michael were politically advantageous.
• Michael I was the first Romanov Tsar and began a long line of powerful rulers.
• Alexis I successfully navigated Russia through multiple uprisings and wars and created long-lasting political bureaus.
• After a long dynastic dispute, Peter the Great rose to power and changed Russia with the new capital of St. Petersburg and western influences.

Key Terms

Old Believers

Followers of the Orthodox faith the way it was practiced before Alexis I convened the Great Moscow Synod and changed the traditions.

Duma chancellory

The first provincial administrative bureau created under Alexis I. In Russian it is called Razryadny Prikaz.

Rurikid

A descendent of the Rurik Dynasty, which dominated seats of power throughout Russian lands for over six centuries before the Romanov Dynasty began.

The House of Romanov

The
House of Romanov was the second major royal dynasty in Russia, and
arose after the Rurikid Dynasty. It was founded in 1613 with the
coronation of Michael I and ended in 1917 with the abdication of Tsar
Nicholas II. However, the direct male blood line of the Romanov
Dynasty ended when Elizabeth of Russia died in 1762, and Peter III, followed by Catherine the Great, were placed in power, both
German-born royalty.

Roots
of the Romanovs

The
earliest common ancestor for the Romanov clan goes back to Andrei
Kobyla. Sources say he was a boyar under the leadership of the
Rurikid prince Semyon I of Moscow in 1347. This figure remains
somewhat mysterious with some sources claiming he was the high-born
son of a Rus’ prince. Others point to the name Kobyla, which means
horse, suggesting he was descended from the Master of Horse
in the royal household.

Whatever
the real origins of this patriarch-like figure, his descendants split
into about a dozen different branches over the next couple of
centuries. One such descendent, Roman Yurievich Zakharyin-Yuriev, gave
the Romanov Dynasty its name. Grandchildren of this patriarch changed
their name to Romanov and it remained there until they rose to power.

Michael
I

The
Romanov Dynasty proper was founded after the Time of Troubles, an era
between 1598 and 1613, which included a dynastic struggle, wars with
Sweden and Poland, and severe famine. Tsar Boris Godunov’s rule,
which lasted until 1605, saw the Romanov families exiled to the Urals and
other remote areas. Michael I’s father was forced to take monastic
vows and adopt the name Philaret. Two impostors attempting to gain the
throne in Moscow attempted to leverage Romanov power after Godunov died in
1605. And by 1613, the Romanov family had again become a popular name in the running for
power.

Patriarch Philaret’s son, Michael I, was voted into power by the zemsky sober in
July 1613, ending a long dynastic dispute. He unified the boyars and
satisfied the Moscow royalty as the son of Feodor Nikitich Romanov (now Patriarch Philaret) and the nephew of the Rurikid Tsar Feodor I. He was only sixteen at
his coronation, and both he and his mother were afraid of his future
in such a difficult political position.

Representation of a young Michael I

He rose to power in Moscow when he was just sixteen and went on to become an influential leader in Russian history.

Michael
I reinstated order in Moscow over his first years in power and also
developed two major government offices, the Posolsky Prikaz (Foreign
Office) and the Razryadny Prikaz (Duma chancellory, or provincial
administration office). These two offices remained essential to
Russian order for a many decades.

Alexis
I

Michael
I ruled until his death in 1645 and his son, Alexis, took over the
throne at the age of sixteen, just like his father. His reign would
last over 30 years and ended at his death in 1676. His reign was
marked by riots in cities such Pskov and Novgorod, as well as continued wars
with Sweden and Poland.

Alexis I of Russian in the 1670s

His policies toward the Church and peasant uprisings created new legal codes and traditions that lasted well into the 19th century.

Portrait of Alexis I

However,
Alexis I established a new legal code called Subornoye Ulozheniye,
which created a serf class, made hereditary class unchangeable, and
required official state documentation to travel between towns. These
codes stayed in effect well into the 19th century. Under Alexis I’s
rule, the Orthodox Church also convened the Great Moscow Synod, which
created new customs and traditions. This historic moment created a
schism between what are termed Old Believers (those attached to the
previous hierarchy and traditions of the Church) and the new Church
traditions. Alexis I’s legacy paints him as a peaceful and
reflective ruler, with a propensity for progressive ideas.

Dynastic
Dispute and Peter the Great

At
the death of Alexis I in 1676, a dynastic dispute erupted between the
children of his first wife, namely Fyodor
III, Sofia
Alexeyevna, Ivan
V, and the son of his second wife, Peter Alexeyevich (later Peter the Great).
The crown was quickly passed down through the children of his first
wife. Fyodor III died from illness after ruling for only six years.
Between 1682 and 1689 power was contested between Sofia Alexeyevna,
Ivan V, and Peter. Sofia served as regent from 1682 to 1689. She
actively opposed Peter’s claim to the throne in favor of her own
brother, Ivan. However, Ivan V and Peter shared the throne until
Ivan’s death in 1696.

Peter the Great as a young ruler in 1698

This portrait was a gift to the King of England and displays a western style that was rarely scene in royal portraits before this time. He is not wearing a beard or the traditional caps and robes that marked Russian nobility before his rule.

Peter went on to
rule over Russia, and even style himself Emperor of all Russia in
1721, and ruled until his death in 1725. He built a new capital in
St. Petersburg, where he built a navy and attempted to wrest control
of the Baltic Sea. He is also remembered for bringing western culture
and Enlightenment ideas to Russia, as well as limiting the control of the Church.