7.5: Culture in Classical Greece

7.5.1: Classical Greek Philosophy

Learning Objective

Understand the main philosophical beliefs of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

Key Points

• Socrates is best known for having pursued a probing question-and-answer style of examination on a number of topics, usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a virtue.
• In 399 BCE, Socrates was charged for his philosophical inquiries, convicted, and sentenced to death.
• Plato was a student of Socrates, and is the author of numerous dialogues and letters, as well as one of the primary sources available to modern scholars on Socrates’ life.
• In his defining work, The Republic, Plato reaches the conclusion that a utopian city is likely impossible because philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so.
• Aristotle was a student of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and founder of the Lyceum and Peripatetic School of philosophy in Athens. He wrote on a number of subjects, including logic, physics, metaphysics, ethics, rhetoric, politics, and botany.

Key Terms

allegory of the cave

A paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible, and the visible world is the least knowable and obscure. Plato has Socrates describe a gathering of people who have lived chained to the wall of a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall upon which shadows are projected. The shadows are as close as the prisoners get to viewing reality.

Aristotle

The student of Plato, tutor to Alexander the Great, and founder of the Lyceum. A Greek philosopher who wrote on a number of topics, including logic, ethics, and metaphysics.

aporia

In philosophy, a paradox or state of puzzlement; in rhetoric, a useful expression of doubt.

Socrates

A classical Greek (Athenian) philosopher credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. Known for a question-answer style of examination.

Plato

The student of Socrates and author of The Republic. A philosopher and mathematician in classical Greece.

Classical Greece saw a flourishing of philosophers, especially in Athens during its Golden Age. Of these philosophers, the most famous are Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Socrates

Socrates

Bust of Socrates, currently in the Louvre.

Socrates, born in Athens in the 5th century BCE, marks a watershed in ancient Greek philosophy. Athens was a center of learning, with sophists and philosophers traveling from across Greece to teach rhetoric, astronomy, cosmology, geometry, and the like. The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with these new teachings, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers. It became a crime to investigate issues above the heavens or below the earth because they were considered impious. While other philosophers, such as Anaxagoras, were forced to flee Athens, Socrates was the only documented individual charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE. In the version of his defense speech presented by Plato, he claims that the envy others experience on account of his being a philosopher is what will lead to his conviction.

Many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, a style known as aporia. Socrates is said to have pursued this probing question-and-answer style of examination on a number of topics, usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a virtue. While Socrates’ recorded conversations rarely provide a definitive answer to the question under examination, several maxims or paradoxes for which he has become known recur. Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge. He frequently remarks on his own ignorance (claiming that he does not know what courage is, for example). Plato presents Socrates as distinguishing himself from the common run of mankind by the fact that, while they know nothing noble and good, they do not know that they do not know, whereas Socrates knows and acknowledges that he knows nothing noble and good.

Socrates was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians. When he was on trial, he used his method of elenchos, a dialectic method of inquiry that resembles
the scientific method, to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the “welfare of their souls.” Socrates’ assertion that the gods had singled him out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke irritation, if not outright ridicule. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their own quality. Socrates argued that moral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture.

Plato

Plato

A copy of Plato’s portrait bust by Silanion.

Plato was an Athenian of the generation after Socrates. Ancient tradition ascribes 36 dialogues and 13 letters to him, although of these only 24 of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic. Most modern scholars believe that at least 28 dialogues, and two of the letters, were in fact written by Plato, although all of the 36 dialogues have some defenders. Plato’s dialogues feature Socrates, although not always as the leader of the conversation. Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates’ life and beliefs, and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two. 

Much of what is known about Plato’s doctrines is derived from what Aristotle reports about them, and many of Plato’s political doctrines are derived from Aristotle’s works, The Republic, the Laws, and the Statesman. The Republic contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by philosopher kings; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women, children, and property in common; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through noble lies. The Republic determines that such a city is likely impossible, however, and generally assumes that philosophers would refuse to rule if the citizenry asked them to, and moreover, the citizenry would refuse to compel philosophers to rule in the first place.

“Platonism” is a term coined by scholars to refer to the intellectual consequences of denying, as Plato’s Socrates often does, the reality of the material world. In several dialogues, most notably The Republic, Socrates inverts the common man’s intuition about what is knowable and what is real. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. Socrates’s idea that reality is unavailable to those who use their senses is what puts him at odds with the common man and with common sense. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind, and this idea is most famously captured in his allegory of the cave, a paradoxical analogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world is the most intelligible and that the visible world is the least knowable and most obscure.
In the allegory,
Socrates describes a gathering of people who have lived chained to the wall of
a cave facing a blank wall. The people watch shadows projected on the wall from
the fire burning behind them, and the people begin to name and describe the
shadows, which are the closest images they have to reality. Socrates then
explains that a philosopher is like a prisoner released from that cave who
comes to understand the shadows on the wall are not reality.

Aristotle

Aristotle

Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippus, c. 330 BCE. The alabaster mantle is modern.

Aristotle moved to Athens from his native Stageira in 367 BCE, and began to study philosophy, and perhaps even rhetoric, under Isocrates. He eventually enrolled at Plato’s Academy. He left Athens approximately twenty years later to study botany and zoology, became a tutor of Alexander the Great, and ultimately returned to Athens a decade later to establish his own school, the Lyceum.
He is the founder of the Peripatetic School of philosophy, which aims to
glean facts from experiences and explore the “why” in all things. In other
words, he advocates learning by induction.

At least 29 of Aristotle’s treatises have survived, known as the corpus Aristotelicum, and address a variety of subjects including logic, physics, optics, metaphysics, ethics, rhetoric, politics, poetry, botany, and zoology. Aristotle is often portrayed as disagreeing with his teacher, Plato. He criticizes the regimes described in Plato’s Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as “empty words and poetic metaphors.”  He preferred utilizing empirical observation and practical concerns in his works.
Aristotle did not consider virtue to be simple knowledge as Plato did,
but founded in one’s nature, habit, and reason. Virtue was gained by acting in
accordance with nature and moderation.

7.5.2: Classical Greek Poetry and History

Learning Objective

Explain how epic poetry influenced the development of classical Greek historical texts

Key Points

• The formative influence of the Homeric epics in shaping Greek culture was widely recognized, and Homer was described as the teacher of Greece.
• The Iliad, sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium, is set during the Trojan War and recounts the battles and events surrounding a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles.
• Herodotus is referred to as “The Father of History,” and is
  the first historian known to have broken from Homeric tradition in order to
  treat historical subjects as a method of investigation arranged into a
  historiographic narrative.
• Thucydides, who had been trained in rhetoric, provided a
  model of historical prose-writing based more firmly in factual progression of a
  narrative, whereas Herodotus, due to frequent digressions and asides, appeared
  to minimize his authorial control.
• Thucydides is sometimes known as the father of “scientific
  history,” or an early precursor to 20^th century scientific
  positivism, because of his strict adherence to evidence-gathering and analysis
  of historical cause and effect without reference to divine intervention.
• Despite its heavy
  political slant, scholars cite strong literary and philosophical influences in
  Thucydides’ work.

Key Terms

Homer

A Greek poet of the 7^th or 8^th century BCE; author of the Iliad and the Odyssey.

dactylic hexameter

A form of meter in poetry or a rhythmic scheme. Traditionally associated with the quantitative meter of classical epic poetry in both Greek and Latin, and consequently considered to be the grand style of classical poetry.

Homer

In the Western classical tradition, Homer is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest of ancient Greek epic poets. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.
Whether and when Homer lived is unknown. The ancient Greek author Herodotus estimates that Homer lived 400 years before his own time, which would place him at around 850 BCE, while other ancient sources claim that he lived much nearer to the supposed time of the Trojan War, in the early 12^th century BCE. Most modern researchers place Homer in the 7^th or 8^th centuries BCE.

Homer

Idealized portrayal of Homer dating to the Hellenistic period; located at the British Museum.

The formative influence of the Homeric epics in shaping Greek culture was widely recognized, and Homer was described as the “Teacher of Greece.”  Homer’s works, some 50% of which are speeches, provided models in persuasive speaking and writing that were emulated throughout the ancient and medieval Greek worlds. Fragments of Homer account for nearly half of all identifiable Greek literary papyrus finds.

The Iliad

The Iliad (sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an ancient Greek epic poem in dactylic hexameter. Set during the Trojan War (the ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states), it tells of the battles and events surrounding a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege. The epic narrative describes events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles’ looming death and the sack of Troy. The events are prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly, so that when the story reaches an end, the poem has told a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War.

Nineteenth
century excavations at Hisarlik provided scholars with historical evidence for
the events of the Trojan War, as told by Homer in the Iliad. Additionally, linguistic studies into oral epic traditions
in nearby civilizations, and the deciphering of Linear B in the 1950s, provided
further evidence that the Homeric poems could have been derived from oral
transmissions of long-form tales about a war that actually took place. The
likely historicity of the Iliad as a
piece of literature, however, must be balanced against the creative license
that would have been taken over years of transmission, as well as the alteration of historical fact to conform with tribal preferences and provide entertainment
value to its intended audiences.

Herodotus

Herodotus was a Greek historian who was born in
Halicarnassus (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the 5^th century BCE. He
was a contemporary of Socrates. He is referred to as “The Father of History” and is the first historian known to have broken from Homeric tradition in order
to treat historical subjects as a method of investigation arranged into a
historiographic narrative. His only known work is a history on the origins of
the Greco-Persian Wars, entitled, The
Histories. Herodotus states that he only reports that which was told to
him, and some of his stories are fanciful and/or inaccurate; however, the
majority of his information appears to be accurate.

Athenian tragic poets and storytellers appear to
have provided heavy inspiration for Herodotus, as did Homer. Herodotus appears
to have drawn on an Ionian tradition of storytelling, collecting and
interpreting oral histories he happened upon during his travels in much the
same way that oral poetry formed the basis for much of Homer’s works. While
these oral histories often contained folk-tale motifs and fed into a central
moral, they also related verifiable facts relating to geography, anthropology,
and history. For this reason, Herodotus drew criticism from his contemporaries,
being touted as a mere storyteller and even a falsifier of information. In
contrast to this type of approach, Thucydides, who had been trained in
rhetoric, provided a model of historical prose-writing based more firmly in
factual progression of a narrative, whereas Herodotus, due to frequent
digressions and asides, appeared to minimize his authorial control.

Thucydides

Thucydides was an Athenian historian and general.
His History of the Peloponnesian War
recounts the 5^th century BCE war between Athens and Sparta. Thucydides
is sometimes known as the father of “scientific history,” or an early precursor
to 20^th century scientific positivism, because of his strict
adherence to evidence-gathering and analysis of historical cause and effect
without reference to divine intervention. He is also considered the father of
political realism, which is a school of thought within the realm of political
science that views the political behavior of individuals and the relations
between states to be governed by self-interest and fear. More generally,
Thucydides’ texts show concern with understanding why individuals react the way
they do during such crises as plague, massacres, and civil war.

Unlike Herodotus, Thucydides did not view his
historical accounts as a source of moral lessons, but rather as a factual
reporting of contemporary political and military events. Thucydides viewed life
in political terms rather than moral terms, and viewed history in political terms. Thucydides also tended to omit, or at least downplay, geographic and
ethnographic aspects of events from his work, whereas Herodotus recorded all
information as part of the narrative. Thucydides’ accounts are
generally held to be more unambiguous and reliable than those of Herodotus. However, unlike his predecessor, Thucydides does not reveal his sources. Curiously,
although subsequent Greek historians, such as Plutarch, held up Thucydides’
writings as a model for scholars of their field, many of them continued to view
history as a source of moral lessons, as did Herodotus.

Despite its heavy
political slant, scholars cite strong literary and philosophical influences in
Thucydides’ work. In particular, the History
of the Peloponnesian War echoes the narrative tradition of Homer, and draws
heavily from epic poetry and tragedy to construct what is essentially a
positivistic account of world events. Additionally, it brings to the forefront themes
of justice and suffering in a similar manner to the philosophical texts of
Aristotle and Plato.

7.5.3: Classical Greek Theater

Learning Objective

Describe the common themes found in classical Greek plays 

Key Points

• The city-state of Athens was the center of
  cultural power during this period, and held a drama festival in honor of the god
  Dionysus, called the Dionysia.
• Two dramatic genres to emerge from this era of
  Greek theater were tragedy and comedy, both of which rose to prominence around
  500-490 BCE.
• Greek tragedy is an extension of the ancient
  rites carried out in honor of Dionysus; it heavily influenced the theater of ancient
  Rome and the Renaissance.
• Tragic plots were often based upon myths from
  the oral traditions of archaic epics, and took the form of narratives presented
  by actors.
• Aeschylus was the first tragedian to codify the
  basic rules of tragic drama, and is considered by many to be the “father of
  tragedy.”
• Athenian comedy is divided into three periods:
  Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy.

Key Terms

chorus

In
the context of Greek theatre, a homogeneous, non-individualized group of
performers who comment, with a collective voice, on dramatic action.

deus ex machina

A plot
device whereby a seemingly unsolvable problem is suddenly and abruptly resolved
by the unexpected intervention of some new event, character, ability, or
object.

monody

In
the context of ancient Greek theater and literature, lyric poetry sung by a
single performer rather than by a chorus.

The theatrical culture of ancient Greece flourished from
approximately 700 BCE onward. The city-state of Athens was the center of
cultural power during this period and held a drama festival in honor of the god
Dionysus, called the Dionysia. This festival was exported to many of Athen’s
numerous colonies to promote a common cultural identity across the empire. Two dramatic
genres to emerge from this era of Greek theater were tragedy and comedy, both
of which rose to prominence around 500-490 BCE.

Greek Tragedy

Sometimes referred to as Attic tragedy, Greek tragedy is an
extension of the ancient rites carried out in honor of Dionysus, and it heavily
influenced the theater of ancient Rome and the Renaissance. Tragic plots were
often based upon myths from the oral traditions of archaic epics, and took the
form of narratives presented by actors. Tragedies typically began with a
prologue, in which one or more characters introduce the plot and explain the
background to the ensuing story. The prologue is then followed by paraodos, after which the story unfolds
through three or more episodes. The episodes are interspersed by stasima, or choral interludes that
explain or comment on the situation that is developing. The tragedy then ends
with an exodus, which concludes the
story.

Aeschylus and the Codification of Tragic Drama

Aeschylus was the first tragedian to codify the basic rules
of tragic drama. He is often described as the father of tragedy. He is credited
with inventing the trilogy, a series of three tragedies that tell one long
story. Trilogies were often performed in sequence over the course of a day,
from sunrise to sunset. At the end of the last play, a satyr play was staged to
revive the spirits of the public after they had witnessed the heavy events of
the tragedy that had preceded it. 

Marble bust of Aeschylus

Marble bust of Aeschylus

According to Aristotle, Aeschylus also expanded the number
of actors in theater to allow for the dramatization of conflict on stage.
Previously, it was standard for only one character to be present and interact
with the homogeneous chorus, which commented in unison on the dramatic action
unfolding on stage. Aeschylus’s works show an evolution and enrichment in
dialogue, contrasts, and theatrical effects over time, due to the rich
competition that existed among playwrights of this era. Unfortunately, his
plays, and those of Sophocles and Euripides, are the only works of classical
Greek literature to have survived mostly intact, so there are not many rival
texts to examine his works against.

The Reforms of Sophocles

Cast of Sophocles’ bust in the Pushkin Museum

Sophocles

Sophocles was one such rival who triumphed against the
famous and previously unchallenged Aeschylus. Sophocles introduced a third
actor to staged tragedies, increased the chorus to 15 members, broke the cycle
of trilogies (making possible the production of independent dramas), and introduced
the concept of scenery to theater. Compared to the works of Aeschylus, choruses
in Sophocles’ plays did less explanatory work, shifting the focus to deeper
character development and staged conflict. The events that took place were often left unexplained or unjustified, forcing the audience to reflect upon the
human condition.

The Realism of Euripides

Euripides differs from Aeschylus and Sophocles in his search
for technical experimentation and increased focus on feelings as a mechanism to
elaborate the unfolding of tragic events. In Euripides’ tragedies, there are
three experimental aspects that reoccur. The first is the transition of the
prologue to a monologue performed by an actor informing spectators of a story’s
background. The second is the introduction of deus ex machina, or a plot device whereby a seemingly unsolvable
problem is suddenly and abruptly resolved by the unexpected intervention of
some new event, character, ability, or object. Finally, the use of a chorus was
minimized in favor of a monody sung by the characters.

Statue of Euripides

Statue of Euripides

Another novelty introduced by Euripidean drama is the
realism with which characters’ psychological dynamics are portrayed. Unlike in
Aeschylus or Sophocles’ works, heroes in Euripides’ plays were portrayed as
insecure characters troubled by internal conflict rather than simply resolute.
Female protagonists were also used to portray tormented sensitivity and
irrational impulses that collided with the world of reason.

Greek Comedy

As Aristotle wrote in his Poetics, comedy is defined by the representation of laughable
people, and involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain
or disaster. Athenian comedy is divided into three periods: Old Comedy, Middle
Comedy, and New Comedy. The Old Comedy period is largely represented by the 11
surviving plays of Aristophanes, whereas much of the work of the Middle Comedy
period has been lost. New Comedy is known primarily by the substantial papyrus
fragments of Menander. In general, the divisions between these periods is
largely arbitrary, and ancient Greek comedy almost certainly developed
constantly over the years.

Old Comedy and Aristophanes

Aristophanes, the most important Old Comic dramatist, wrote
plays that abounded with political satire, as well as sexual and scatological
innuendo. He lampooned the most important personalities and institutions of his
day, including Socrates in The Clouds.
His works are characterized as definitive to the genre of comedy even today.

Middle Comedy

Although the line between Old and Middle Comedy is not
clearly marked chronologically, there are some important thematic differences between
the two. For instance, the role of the chorus in Middle Comedy was
largely diminished to the point where it had no influence on the plot.
Additionally, public characters were no longer impersonated or personified
onstage, and objects of ridicule tended to be more general rather than
personal, and in many instances, literary rather than political. For some time,
mythological burlesque was popular among Middle Comic poets. Stock characters
also were employed during this period. In-depth assessment and critique of the
styling of Middle Comedy is difficult, given the lack of complete bodies of
work. However, given the revival of this style in Sicily and Magna Graecia, it
appears that the works of this period did have considerable widespread
literary and social impact.

New Comedy

The style of New Comedy is comparable to what is
contemporarily referred to as situation comedy or comedy of manners. The
playwrights of Greek New Comedy built upon the devices, characters, and
situations their predecessors had developed. Prologues to shape the audience’s
understanding of events, messengers’ speeches to announce offstage action, and ex machina endings were all well
established tropes that were used in New Comedies. Satire and farce occupied
less importance in the works of this time, and mythological themes and subjects
were replaced by everyday concerns. Gods and goddesses were, at best,
personified abstractions rather than actual characters, and no miracles or
metamorphoses occurred. For the first time, love became a principal element in
this type of theater. 

Three playwrights are well known from this period: Menander,
Philemon, and Diphilus. Menander was the most successful of the New Comedians.
Menander’s comedies focused on the fears and foibles of the ordinary man, as
opposed to satirical accounts of political and public life, which perhaps lent
to his comparative success within the genre. His comedies are the first to
demonstrate the five-act structure later to become common in modern plays. Philemon’s
comedies dwell on philosophical issues, whereas Diphilus was noted for his use
of farcical violence.

7.5.4: Classical Greek Architecture

Learning Objective

Describe the distinguishing characteristics of Classical Greek Architecture

Key Points

• Classical Greek
  architecture is best represented by substantially intact ruins of temples and
  open-air theaters.
• The
  architectural style of classical Greece can be divided into three separate
  orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order, and the Corinthian Order. All three
  styles have had a profound impact on Western architecture of later periods.
• While the three
  orders of Greek architecture are most easily recognizable by their capitals,
  the orders also governed the form, proportions, details, and relationships of
  the columns, entablature, pediment, and stylobate.
• The Parthenon is considered the most important
  surviving building of classical Greece, and the zenith of Doric Order
  architecture.

Key Terms

capitals

In architecture, a capital forms the topmost
member of a column.

entablature

An entablature is the superstructure of moldings
and bands that lay horizontally above columns and rest on capitals.

pediment

A pediment is an element in classical,
neoclassical, and baroque architecture that is placed above the horizontal
structure of an entablature, and is typically supported by columns.

stylobate

In classical Greek architecture, a stylobate is
the top step of a stepped platform upon which colonnades of temple columns are
placed. In other words, the stylobate comprises the temple flooring.

Classical Greek architecture
is highly formalized in structure and decoration, and is best known for its
temples, many of which are found throughout the region as substantially intact
ruins. Each classical Greek temple appears to have been conceived as a
sculptural entity within the landscape, and is usually raised on higher ground
so that its proportions and the effects of light on its surface can be viewed
from multiple angles. Open-air theaters are also an important type of building
that survives throughout the Hellenic world, with the earliest dating from
approximately 525-480 BCE. 

Greek architectural style
can be divided into three separate orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order,
and the Corinthian Order. These styles have had a profound impact on Western
architecture of later periods. In particular, the architecture of ancient Rome
grew out of Greek architecture. Revivals of Classicism have also brought about renewed
interest in the architectural styles of ancient Greece. While the three orders
of Greek architecture are most easily recognizable by their capitals, the
orders also governed the form, proportions, details, and relationships of the
columns, entablature, pediment, and stylobate. Orders were applied to the whole
range of buildings and monuments.

The Doric Order

The Doric Order developed on mainland Greece and spread to
Italy. It is most easily recognized by its capital, which appears as a circular
cushion placed on top of a column onto which a lintel rests. In early examples
of the Doric Order, the cushion is splayed and flat, but over time, it became more
refined, deeper, and with a greater curve.

Doric columns almost always feature fluting down the
length of the column, numbering up to 20 flutes. The flutes meet at sharp edges, called
arrises. Doric columns typically have no bases, with the exception of a few
examples dating from the Hellenistic period. Columns of an early Doric temple, such as the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse, could have a column height to an entablature ratio of 2:1, and a column height to a base diameter ratio of only
4:1. Later, a column height to a diameter ratio of 6:1 became more usual, and there is a column height to an entablature ratio at the Parthenon oapproximately 3:1.

Doric entablatures consist of three parts: the architrave,
the frieze, and the cornice. The architrave is composed of stone lintels that
span the space between columns. On top of this rests the frieze, one of the
major areas of sculptural decoration. The frieze is divided into triglyps and
metopes. The triglyphs have three vertical grooves, similar to columnar
fluting, and below them are guttae, small strips that appear to connect the
triglyps to the architrave below. The triglyps are located above the center of
each capital and the center of each lintel.

Pediments in the Doric style were decorated with figures in
relief in early examples; however, by the time the sculptures on the Parthenon
were created, many pediment decorations were freestanding.

The Parthenon

The Parthenon is considered the most important surviving
building of classical Greece and the zenith of Doric Order architecture. It is
a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis dedicated to the patron goddess of
Athens, Athena. Construction began on the Parthenon in 447 BCE, when the
Athenian Empire was at its peak. Construction was completed in 438 BCE, but
decoration of the building continued until 432 BCE. Although most architectural
elements of the Parthenon belong to the Doric Order, a continuous sculptured
frieze in low relief that sits above the architrave belongs to the Ionic style.

The Parthenon

The Parthenon under restoration in 2008.

The Ionic Order

The Ionic Order coexisted with the Doric Order and was
favored by Greek cities in Ionia, Asia Minor, and the Aegean Islands. It did
not evolve into a clearly defined style until the mid-5^th century
BCE. Early Ionic temples in Asia Minor were particularly ambitious in scale.

The Ionic Order is most easily identified by its voluted
capital. The cushion placed on top of the column is similarly shaped to that of
the Doric Order, but is decorated with a stylized ornament and surmounted by a
horizontal band that scrolls under to either side.

Ionic Order columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes
that do not meet at a sharp edge, but have a flat band between them. The usual
number of flutes is 24, but there can be as many as 44. The architrave is
not always decorated, but more often it rises in three outwardly-stepped
bands. The frieze runs in a continuous band and is separated from other members
by rows of small projecting blocks. 

The Ionic Order is lighter in appearance than the Doric
Order, with columns that have a 9:1 ratio, and the diameter and the whole
entablature appears much narrower and less heavy than those of the Doric.
Decorations were distributed with some variation, and Ionic entablatures often
featured formalized bands of motifs. The external frieze often contained a
continuous band of figurative sculpture of ornament, though this was not always
the case. Caryatids—draped female figures used as supporting members to the
entablature—were also a feature of the Ionic Order.

The Erechteum on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece

Corner capital in the Ionic style with a diagonal volute, showing also details of the fluting separated by fillets.

The Corinthian Order

The Corinthian Order grew directly from the Ionic in the
mid-5^th century BCE, and was initially of a very similar style and
proportion, with the only distinguishing factor being its more ornate capitals.
The capitals of the Corinthian Order were much deeper than those of the Doric
and Ionic Orders. They were shaped like a bell-shaped mixing bowl and
ornamented with a double row of acanthus leaves above which rose splayed, voluted
tendrils. The ratio of column height to diameter of the Corinthian
Order is generally 10:1, with the capital taking up more than a tenth of the
height. The ratio of capital height to diameter is generally about 1:16:1.

Initially the Corinthian Order was used
internally in such sites as the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae. By the
late 300s, features of the Corinthian Order began to be used externally at
sites such as the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates and the Temple of Zeus
Olympia, both in Athens. During the Hellenistic period, Corinthian columns were
sometimes built without fluting. The Corinthian Order became popular among
the Romans, who added a number of refinements and decorative details.

7.5.5: Scientific Advancements in the Classical Period

Learning Objective

Describe the various scientific advancements made during the Hellenistic period

Key Points

• Great seats of learning rose during the Hellenistic Period, including those at Alexandria and Antioch.
• Scientific inquiries were often sponsored by royal patrons.
• The
  discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras and Euclid,
  are still used in mathematical teaching today. Important developments include the
  basic rules of geometry, the idea of a formal mathematical proof, and
  discoveries in number theory, mathematical analysis, and applied mathematics.
• The
  Greeks also developed the field of astronomy, which they treated as a branch of
  mathematics to a highly sophisticated level.
• Hippocrates was a physician
  of the classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures
  in the history of medicine. Most notably, he founded the Hippocratic school of
  medicine, which revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece by establishing it as
  a discipline distinct from other fields, and making medicine a profession.

Key Terms

Hellenistic period

The period of ancient Greek and Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.

Alexandria

An important seat of learning within the Hellenistic civilization and the capital of Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Egypt for almost 1,000 years, until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 CE.

Hellenistic Culture

Hellenistic culture produced seats of learning in Alexandria, Egypt and Antioch, Syria, along with Greek-speaking populations across several monarchies. Hellenistic science differed from Greek science in at least two ways. First, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in the larger Hellenistic world. Secondly, to some extent, it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander’s successors. 

Especially important to Hellenistic science was the city of Alexandria in Egypt, which became a major center of scientific research in the 3^rd century BCE. Two institutions established there during the reigns of Ptolemy I Soter (reigned 323-283 BCE) and Ptolemy II Philadelphus (reigned 281-246 BCE) were the Library and the Museum. Unlike Plato’s Academy and Aristotle’s Lyceum, these institutions were officially supported by the Ptolemies, although the extent of patronage could be precarious, depending on the policies of the current ruler.

The Great Library of Alexandria

The Great Library of Alexandria, O. Von Corven. 19^th century.

Mathematics and
Astronomy

The discoveries of
several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras and Euclid, are still used
in mathematical teaching today. Important developments include the basic rules
of geometry, the idea of a formal mathematical proof, and discoveries in number
theory, mathematical analysis, and applied mathematics. Ancient Greek
mathematicians also came close to establishing integral calculus.

The Greeks also
developed the field of astronomy, which they treated as a branch of
mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical,
three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets was developed
in the 4^th century BCE, by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of
Cyzicus. Their younger contemporary, Heraclides Ponticus, proposed that the Earth
rotates around its axis. In the 3^rd century BCE, Aristarchus of
Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system. In the 2^nd
century BCE, Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions, including the
first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog, in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes.

The Antikythera
mechanism, a device for calculating the movements of the planets, was the first
ancestor of the astronomical computer. It dates from about 80 BCE, and was
discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera. The
device became famous for its use of a differential gear, which was previously
believed to have been invented in the 16^th century, as well as the
miniaturization and complexity of its parts, which has been compared to that of
clocks produced in the 18^th century. 

The Medical Field

The ancient Greeks also
made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a physician of
the classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in
the history of medicine. He is sometimes even referred to as the “father of
medicine.” Most notably, he founded the Hippocratic school of medicine, which
revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece by establishing it as a discipline
distinct from other fields, and making medicine a profession.

Other notable Hellenistic scientists and their achievements include:

• Herophilos (335-280 BCE), who was the first to base medical conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system
• Archimedes (c. 287-212 BCE), a geometer, physicist, and engineer who laid the foundations of hydrostatics and statics, and explained the principle of the lever
• Eratosthenes (c. 276 BCE-195/194 BCE), who measured the distance between the Sun and the Earth, as well as the size of the Earth

7.6: The Peloponnesian War

7.6.1: Introduction to the Peloponnesian War

The
Peloponnesian War provided a dramatic end to the 5^th century BCE, shattering
religious and cultural taboos, devastating vast swathes of countryside, and
destroying whole cities.

Learning Objective

Describe the events of the Peloponnesian War

Key Points

• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) was fought
  between Athens and its empire, known as the Delian League, and the
  Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta.
• During this conflict, Greek warfare evolved from
  an originally limited and formalized form of conflict, to all-out struggles
  between city-states, with large-scale atrocities.
• During the first phase, known as the Archidamian
  War, Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica while Athens took advantage
  of its naval supremacy to raid the Peloponnese coast.
• Initially Athens’ strategy, as guided by
  Pericles, was to avoid open battle with the more numerous and better trained
  Spartan hoplites, and to instead rely on Athens’ superior naval fleet.
• In the aftermath of a devastating plague,
  Athenians turned against Pericles’s defensive strategy in favor of a more
  aggressive one that would bring war directly to Sparta and its allies.
• The Peace of Nicias was signed in 421 BCE,
  and concluded the first phase of the war. The treaty was undermined, however, by
  continued fighting and calls for revolt throughout the Peloponnese.
• The destruction of Athens’ fleet at Aegospotami during
  the Decelean War effectively ended the Peloponnesian War. Athens surrendered a
  year later in 404 BCE.

Key Terms

hoplites

Hoplites
were citizen-soldiers of Ancient Greek city-states who were primarily armed
with spears and shields.

helot

Helots
were a subjugated population group that formed the main population of Laconia
and Messenia, the territories controlled by Sparta.

The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) was fought between
Athens and its empire, known as the Delian League, and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. During this conflict, Greek warfare evolved from an originally
limited and formalized form of conflict, to all-out struggles between
city-states, complete with large-scale atrocities. The Peloponnesian War
provided a dramatic end to the 5^th century BCE, shattering religious and
cultural taboos, devastating vast swathes of countryside, and destroying whole
cities. Historians have traditionally divided the war into several different phases.

The Archidamian War

During the first phase, known as the Archidamian War, Sparta
launched repeated invasions of Attica while Athens took advantage of its naval
supremacy to raid the Peloponnese coast. Sparta and its allies, with the
exception of Corinth, were almost exclusively land-based powers, whereas the Athens empire, though based on a peninsula, had developed impressive naval power. As a result, the two powers were relatively unable to
fight decisive battles.The Spartan strategy during the Archidamian War was to
invade the land surrounding Athens, depriving Athenians of the productive land
around their city. However, Athens maintained access to the sea and did not
suffer much from this strategy, though many citizens of Attica abandoned their
farms and moved inside the long walls connecting Athens to port Piraeus.

The Walls Protecting Athens

The walls protecting Athens during the Peloponnesian War.

The walls protecting the city and the port during the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE stretched from Athens to Piraeus on the sea. The northern wall is labelled “North Long Wall” and the southern wall is labelled the “South Long Wall.”

Initially Athens’ strategy, as guided by Pericles, was to
avoid open battle with the more numerous, and better trained Spartan hoplites, and to instead rely on Athens’ superior fleet. As a result, Athens’ fleet went
on the offensive, winning a victory at Naupactus. Their victory was short-lived,
however, because in 430 BCE, an outbreak of plague hit Athens, ravaging the
densely packed city and wiping out over 30,000 citizens, sailors, and soldiers,
which amounted to roughly one-third to two-thirds of the Athenian population. As a
result, Athenian manpower was drastically reduced, and due to widespread fears
of plague, foreign mercenaries refused to hire themselves out to Athens. Sparta
also abandoned its invasion of Attica during this time, unwilling to risk
contact with their diseased enemy.

Pericles and his sons perished as a result of plague, and in
the aftermath, Athenians turned against Pericles’s defensive strategy in favor
of a more aggressive one that would bring war directly to Sparta and its
allies. Initially this strategy met with some success as Athens pursued naval
raids throughout the Peloponnese. Their successes allowed them to fortify posts
throughout the Peloponnese. One such post was near Pylos, on a tiny island
called Sphacteria. It began attracting helot runaways from Sparta, which in
turn raised Spartan fears that Athenian activities throughout the Peloponnese
would incite a mass helot revolt. As a result, the Spartans were driven into
action. During the ensuing conflicts, 300 to 400 Spartans were taken hostage,
providing Athens with a bargaining chip.

In return, the Spartans raised an army of allies and helots
and marched the length of Greece to the Athenian colony of Amphipolis, which
controlled several nearby silver mines. These mines were particularly important
because they provided much of the money that financed the Athenian war effort.
The capture of this colony provided Sparta a bargaining chip as well, and the
two rival city-states agreed to sign a truce, exchanging the Spartan hostages
for Amphipolis and its silver mines.

Peace of Nicias

The Peace of Nicias was signed in 421 BCE, concluding the
first phase of the war. Due to the loss of war hawks in both city-states during
the previous conflict, the peace endured for approximately six years. The
treaty was undermined, however, by continued fighting and calls for revolt
throughout the Peloponnese. Although the Spartans refrained from such actions
themselves, their allies remained vocal, particularly Argos. The Athenians
supported the Argives and encouraged them to form a coalition of democratic
states within the Peloponnese and separate from Sparta. Early Spartan attempts to
thwart such a coalition ultimately failed, and the Argives, their allies, and a
small Athenian force moved to seize the city of Tegea, near Sparta.

The Battle of Mantinea was the largest land battle fought
within Greece during the Peloponnesian War. The Argive allied coalition
initially utilized the sheer strength of their combined forces to score early
successes, but failed to capitalize on them, providing the elite Spartan forces
opportunities to defeat the coalition and save their city from a strategic
defeat. The Argive democratic alliance was broken up, and most members were
reincorporated into Sparta’s Peloponnesian League, reestablishing Spartan
hegemony throughout the region.

The Sicilian Expedition

During the 17^th year of war, Athens received news
that one of their distant allies in Sicily was under attack from Syracuse. The
people of Syracuse were ethnically Dorian like the Spartans, and Sicily and
their allies, the Athenians, were ethnically Ionian. In 415 BCE, Athens
dispatched a massive expeditionary force to attack Syracuse in Sicily. The
Athenian force consisted of more than 100 ships, approximately 5,000
infantry, and lightly armored troops. However, their cavalry was limited to about
30 horses, which proved to be no match for the large and highly trained
Syracusan cavalry. 

Meanwhile, the Syracusans petitioned Sparta for assistance in
the matter, and Sparta sent their general, Gylippus, to Sicily with reinforcements.
Subsequent Athenian attacks failed and Athens’ entire force was destroyed by
413 BCE.

The Second War

This ushered in the final phase of the war, known as the
Decelean War, or the Ionian War. By this time, Sparta was receiving support from
Persia, and Sparta bolstered rebellions in Athens’ Aegean Sea and Ionian subject
states, in order to undermine Athens empire. This eventually led to the erosion
of Athens’ naval supremacy. The Lacedaemonians were no longer content with
simply sending aid to Sicily as a means of supporting their ally. Instead, their
focus shifted to an offensive strategy against Athens. As a result, Decelea, a
town near Athens, was fortified in order to prevent the Athenians from making
use of their land year-round, and to thwart overland shipments of supplies. Nearby
silver mines were also disrupted, with Spartan hoplites freeing as many as
20,000 Athenian slaves in the vicinity. Due to this disruption in finance,
Athens was forced to demand increased tribute from its subject allies, further
increasing tension and the threat of rebellion throughout the Athenian empire.

Members of the Peloponnesian League continued to
send reinforcements to Syracuse in hopes of driving off the Athenians, but
instead, Athens sent another 100 ships and 5,000 troops to Sicily. Gylippus’s
forces, combined with those of the Syracusans, defeated the Athenians on land. The
destruction of Athens’ fleet at Aegospotami effectively ended the war, and
Athens surrendered a year later in 404 BCE. Corinth and Thebes demanded that
Athens be destroyed and all its citizens enslaved, but Sparta refused to
destroy a city that had done good service at a time of great danger to Greece,
and took Athens into their own alliance system.

7.6.2: Effects of the Peloponnesian War

Following the Peloponnesian War, Athens underwent a period
of harsh oligarchic governance and Sparta enjoyed a brief hegemonic period.

Learning Objective

Understand the effects of the Peloponnesian War on the Greek city-states

Key Points

• The Peloponnesian War ended in victory for
  Sparta and its allies, but signaled the demise of Athenian naval and political
  hegemony throughout the Mediterranean.
• Democracy in Athens was briefly overthrown in
  411 BCE as a result of its poor handling of the Peloponnesian War. Lysander,
  the Spartan admiral who commanded the Spartan fleet at Aegospotami in 405 BCE, helped
  to organize the Thirty Tyrants as Athens’ government for the 13 months they
  maintained power.
• Lysander established many pro-Spartan
  governments throughout the Aegean, where the ruling classes were more loyal to
  him than to Sparta as a whole. Eventually Spartan kings, Agis and Pausanias, abolished
  these Aegean decarchies, curbing Lysander’s political influence.
• Agesilaus II was one of two Spartan kings during
  the period of Spartan hegemony, and is remembered for his multiple campaigns in
  the eastern Aegean and Persian territories.
• Agesilaus’s loss at the Battle of Leuctra
  effectively ended Spartan hegemony throughout the region.

Key Terms

hegemony

The
political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over
others.

harmosts

A Spartan
term for a military governor.

oligarchy

A form
of power structure in which a small group of people hold all power and
influence in a state.

The Peloponnesian War ended in victory for Sparta and its
allies, and led directly to the rising naval power of Sparta. However, it
marked the demise of Athenian naval and political hegemony throughout the Mediterranean.
The destruction from the Peloponnesian War weakened and divided the Greeks for
years to come, eventually allowing the Macedonians an opportunity to conquer
them in the mid-4^th century BCE.

Athens

Democracy in Athens was briefly overthrown in 411 BCE as a
result of its poor handling of the Peloponnesian War. Citizens reacted against
Athens’ defeat, blaming democratic politicians, such as Cleon and Cleophon. The
Spartan army encouraged revolt, installing a pro-Spartan oligarchy within
Athens, called the Thirty Tyrants, in 404 BCE. Lysander, the Spartan admiral who
commanded the Spartan fleet at Aegospotami in 405 BCE, helped to organize the
Thirty Tyrants as a government for the 13 months they maintained power. 

During the Thirty Tyrants’ rule, five percent of the
Athenian population was killed, private property was confiscated, and
democratic supporters were exiled. The Thirty appointed a council of 500 to
serve the judicial functions that had formerly belonged to all citizens. Despite
all this, not all Athenian men had their rights removed. In fact, 3,000 such men
were chosen by the Thirty to share in the government of Athens. These men were
permitted to carry weapons, entitled to jury trial, and allowed to reside with
the city limits. This list of men was constantly being revised, and selection
was most likely a reflection of loyalty to the regime, with the majority of
Athenians not supporting the Thirty Tyrants’ rule. 

Nonetheless, the Thirty’s regime was not met with much overt
opposition for the majority of their rule, as a result of the harsh penalties
placed on dissenters. Eventually, the level of violence and brutality carried
out by the Thirty in Athens led to increased opposition, stemming primarily
from a rebel group of exiles led by Thrasybulus, a former trierarch in the
Athenian navy. The increased opposition culminated in a revolution that
ultimately overthrew the Thirty’s regime. In the aftermath, Athens gave amnesty
to the 3,000 men who were given special treatment under the regime, with the
exception of those who comprised the governing Thirty and their associated
governmental officials. Athens struggled to recover from the upheaval caused by
the Thirty Tyrants in the years that followed.

Sparta

As a result of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, which had
primarily been a continental culture, became a naval power. At its peak, Sparta
overpowered many key Greek states, including the elite Athenian navy. By the
end of the 5^th century BCE, Sparta’s successes against the Athenian Empire
and ability to invade Persian provinces in Anatolia ushered in a period of
Spartan hegemony. This hegemonic period was to be short-lived, however.

Lysander

After the end of the Peloponnesian War, Lysander established
many pro-Spartan governments throughout the Aegean. Most of the ruling systems
set up by Lysander were ten-man oligarchies, called decarchies, in which
harmosts, Spartan military governors, were the heads of the government. Because
Lysander appointed from within the ruling classes of these governments, the
men were more loyal to Lysander than Sparta, making these Aegean outposts
similar to a private empire.

Lysander and Spartan king Agis were in agreement with Corinth
and Thebes that Athens should be totally destroyed in the aftermath of the
Peloponnesian War, but they were opposed by a more moderate faction, headed by
Pausanias. Eventually, Pausanias’ moderate faction gained the upper hand and
Athens was spared, though its defensive walls and port fortifications at Piraeus
were demolished. Lysander also managed to require Athens to recall its exiles,
causing political instability within the city-state, of which Lysander took
advantage to establish the oligarchy that came to be known as the Thirty
Tyrants. Because Lysander was also directly involved in the selection of the Thirty,
these men were loyal to him over Sparta, causing King Agis and King Pausanias
to agree to the abolishment of his Aegean decarchies, and eventually the
restoration of democracy in Athens, which quickly curbed Lysander’s political
influence.

Lysander

A 16th century engraving  of Lysander

Agesilaus and His Campaigns

Agesilaus II was one of two Spartan kings during the period
of Spartan hegemony. Lysander was one of Agesilaus’s biggest supporters, and was even a mentor. During his kingship, Agesilaus embarked on a number of military
campaigns in the eastern Aegean and Persian territories. During these
campaigns, the Spartans under Agesilaus’s command met with numerous rebelling
Greek poleis, including the Thebans. The Thebans, Argives, Corinthians, and Athenians
had rebelled during the Corinthian War from 395-386 BCE, and the Persians
aided the Thebans, Corinthians, and Athenians against the Spartans. 

During the winter of 379/378 BCE, a group of
Theban exiles snuck into Thebes and succeeded in liberating it, despite
resistance from a 1,500-strong Spartan garrison. This led to a number of Spartan
expeditions against Thebes, known as The Boeotian War. The Greek city-states
eventually attempted to broker peace, but Theban diplomat Epaminondas angered
Agesilaus by arguing for the freedom of non-Spartan citizens within Laconia. As
a result, Agesilaus excluded the Thebans from the treaty, and the Battle of
Leuctra broke out in 371 BCE; the Spartans eventually lost. Sparta’s
international political influence precipitated quickly after their defeat.

7.7: Macedonian Conquest

7.7.1: The Rise of the Macedon

Philip II’s conquests during the Third Sacred
War cemented his power, as well as the influence of Macedon, throughout the Hellenic
world.

Learning Objective

Describe Philip II’s achievements and how he built up Macedon

Key Points

• The military skills
  Philip II learned while in Thebes, coupled with his expansionist vision of
  Macedonian greatness, brought him early successes when he ascended to the throne
  in 359 BCE.
• Philip earned
  immense prestige, and secured Macedon’s position in the Hellenic world during
  his involvement in the Third Sacred War, which began in Greece in 356 BCE.
• War with Athens
  would arise intermittently for the duration of Philip’s campaigns, due to
  conflicts over land, and/or with allies.
• In 337 BCE,
  Philip created and led the League of Corinth, a federation of Greek states that
  aimed to invade the Persian Empire. 
• In 336 BCE,
  Philip was assassinated during the earliest stages of the League of Corinth’s Persian
  venture.
• Many Macedonian institutions and demonstrations
  of power mirrored established Achaemenid conventions.

Key Term

sarissas

A long spear or pike about 13-20 feet in length, used in ancient Greek and Hellenistic warfare, that was initially introduced by
Philip II of Macedon.

Macedon rose from a small
kingdom on the periphery of classical Greek affairs, to a dominant player in the
Hellenic world and beyond, within the span of 25 years between 359 and 336 BCE.
Macedon’s rise is largely attributable to the policies during Philip II’s rule.

Background

In the aftermath of the
Peloponnesian War, Sparta rose as a hegemonic power in classical Greece.
Sparta’s dominance was challenged by many Greek city-states who had
traditionally been independent during the Corinthian War of 395-387 BCE. Sparta
prevailed in the conflict, but only because Persia intervened on their behalf,
demonstrating the fragility with which Sparta held its power over the other
Greek city-states. In the next decade, the Thebans revolted against Sparta,
successfully liberating their city-state, and later defeating the Spartans at
the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE). Theban general Epaminondas then led an
invasion of the Peloponnesus in 370 BCE, invaded Messenia, and liberated the
helots, permanently crippling Sparta. 

These series of events
allowed the Thebans to replace Spartan hegemonic power with their own. For the
next nine years, Epaminondas and Theban general Pelopidas further extended
Theban power and influence via a series of campaigns throughout Greece,
bringing almost every city-state in Greece into the conflict. These years of
war ultimately left Greece war-weary and depleted, and during Epaminondas’s
fourth invasion of the Peloponnesus in 362 BCE, Epaminondas was killed at the
Battle of Mantinea. Although Thebes emerged victorious, their losses were
heavy, and the Thebans returned to a defensive policy, allowing Athens to
reclaim its position at the center of the Greek political system for the first
time since the Peloponnesian War. The Athenians’ second confederacy would be
Macedon’s main rivals for control of the lands of the north Aegean.

Philip II’s Accession

Philip II of Macedon

Bust of Philip II.

While Philip was young, he
was held hostage in Thebes, and received a military and diplomatic education
from Epaminondas. By 364 BCE, Philip returned to Macedon, and the skills he
learned while in Thebes, coupled with his expansionist vision of Macedonian
greatness, brought him early successes when he ascended to the throne in 359
BCE. When he assumed the throne, the eastern regions of Macedonia had been
sacked and invaded by the Paionians, and the Thracians and the Athenians had
landed a contingent on the coast at Methoni. Philip pushed the Paionians and
Thracians back, promising them tributes, and defeated the 3,000 Athenian hoplites
at Methoni. In the interim between conflicts, Philip focused on strengthening
his army and his overall position domestically, introducing the phalanx
infantry corps and arming them with long spears, called sarissas.

A Macedonian Phalanx

Depiction of a Macedonian phalanx armed with sarissas.

In 358 BCE, Philip marched
against the Illyrians, establishing his authority inland as far as Lake Ohrid.
Subsequently, he agreed to lease the gold mines of Mount Pangaion to the
Athenians in exchange for the return of the city of Pydna to Macedon. Ultimately,
after conquering Amphipolis in 357 BCE, he reneged on his agreement, which led
to war with Athens. During that conflict, Philip conquered Potidaea, but ceded
it to the Chalkidian League of Olynthus, with which he was allied. A year
later, he also conquered Crenides and changed its name to Philippi, using the
gold from the mines there to finance subsequent campaigns. 

Third Sacred War

Philip earned immense
prestige and secured Macedon’s position in the Hellenic world during his
involvement in the Third Sacred War, which began in Greece in 356 BCE. Early in
the war, Philip defeated the Thessalians at the Battle of Crocus Field,
allowing him to acquire Pherae and Magnesia, which was the location of an
important harbor, Pagasae. He did not attempt to advance further into central
Greece, however, because the Athenians occupied Thermopylae. Although there
were no open hostilities between the Athenians and Macedonians at the time,
tensions had arisen as a result of Philip’s recent land and resource acquisitions.
Instead, Philip focused on subjugating the Balkan hill-country in the west and
north, and attacking Greek coastal cities, many of which Philip maintained
friendly relations with, until he had conquered their surrounding territories. Nonetheless,
war with Athens would arise intermittently for the duration of Philip’s
campaigns, due to conflicts over land and/or with allies.

Persian Influences

For many Macedonian rulers, the Achaemenid Empire in Persia
was a major sociopolitical influence, and Philip II was no exception. Many
institutions and demonstrations of his power mirrored established Achaemenid
conventions. For example, Philip established a Royal Secretary and Archive, as
well as the institution of Royal Pages, which would mount the king on his horse
in a manner very similar to the way in which Persian kings were mounted. He
also aimed to make his power both political and religious in nature, utilizing
a special throne stylized after those of the Achaemenid court, to demonstrate
his elevated rank. Achaemenid administrative practices were also utilized in
Macedonia rule of conquered lands, such as Thrace in 342-334 BCE.

In 337 BCE, Philip created and led the League of Corinth. Members of the
league agreed not to engage in conflict with one another unless their aim was
to suppress revolution. Another stated aim of the league was to invade the
Persian Empire. Ironically, in 336 BCE, Philip was assassinated during the
earliest stages of the Persian venture, during the marriage of his daughter
Cleopatra to Alexander I of Epirus.

7.7.2: Alexander the Great

In a little over 30 years, Alexander the Great created one of the largest empires in the ancient world, using his military and tactical genius.

Learning Objective

Examine Alexander the Great’s successes and failures

Key Points

• Alexander the Great spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa. By the age of 30, he created an empire that stretched from Greece to Egypt, and into present-day Pakistan.
• Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and experienced army, both of which contributed to his successes. 
• Alexander’s legacy includes the cultural diffusion his engendered conquests, and the rise of Hellenistic culture as a result of his military campaigns.
• Alexander’s impressive record was largely due to his smart use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold and adaptive strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops.

Key Terms

Philip II

A king of the Greek kingdom of Macedon from 359 BCE until his assassination in 336 BCE. He was the father of Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great

Formally Alexander III of Macedon, a Macedonian king who was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history’s most successful commanders.

phalanx

A rectangular mass military formation, usually composed entirely of heavy infantry armed with spears, pikes, sarissas, or similar weapons.

Following the decline of the Greek city-states, the Greek kingdom of Macedon rose to power under Philip II. Alexander III, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was born to Philip II in Pella in 356 BCE, and succeeded his father to the throne at the age of 20. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, and by the age of 30, had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, which stretched from Greece to Egypt and into present-day Pakistan. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history’s most successful commanders.

Alexander the Great

Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era, now at the British Museum.

During his youth, Alexander was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle, until the age of 16. When he succeeded his father to the throne in 336 BCE, after Philip was assassinated, Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. He had been awarded the generalship of Greece, and used this authority to launch his father’s military expansion plans. In 334 BCE, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire, ruled Asia Minor, and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He overthrew the Persian King Darius III, and conquered the entirety of the Persian Empire. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.

Seeking to reach the “ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea,” he invaded India in 326 BCE, but was eventually forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, the city he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander’s surviving generals and heirs. Alexander’s legacy includes the cultural diffusion his engendered conquests. He founded some 20 cities that bore his name, the most notable being Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander’s settlement of Greek colonists, and the spread of Greek culture in the east, resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics.

Military Generalship

Alexander earned the honorific epithet “the Great” due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. His impressive record was largely due to his smart use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear up to 20 feet long, had been developed and perfected by Alexander’s father, Philip II. Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger, but more disparate, Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, due to the various languages, cultures, and preferred weapons individual soldiers wielded. He overcame the possibility of unrest among his troops by being personally involved in battles, as was common among Macedonian kings.

In his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces—

perhaps 13,000 infantry, with 5,000 cavalry—against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center, and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line. By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. Alexander’s military positioning ensured that his troops would not be outflanked; further, his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persians’ scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians. 

At Issus in 333 BCE, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander personally led the charge in the center and routed the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Alexander at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander in turn arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, which parted when the chariots bore down and reformed once they had passed. The advance proved successful and broke Darius’s center, and Darius was forced to retreat once again. 

When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents’ style. For example, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus’s elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants, and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants’ handlers.

7.7.3: Alexander’s Empire

Alexander the Great’s legacy was the dissemination of Greek culture throughout Asia.

Learning Objective

Describe the legacy Alexander left within his conquered territories

Key Points

• Alexander’s campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between the East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Successor states remained dominant for the next 300 years during the Hellenistic period.
• Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some 20 cities that bore his name, and these cities became centers of culture and diversity. The most famous of these cities is Egypt’s Mediterranean port of Alexandria.
• Hellenization refers to the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander’s conquest.
• Alexander’s death was sudden and his empire disintegrated into a 40-year period of war and chaos in 321 BCE. The Hellenistic world eventually settled into four stable power blocks: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon.

Key Term

Hellenization

The spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander’s conquests.

Alexander’s legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between the East and West, and vast areas to the east were exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, and many survived into the 21^st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves attained a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.

Hellenistic Kingdoms

Alexander’s most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge swathes of Asia. Many of the areas he conquered remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200 to 300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and this 300 year period is often referred to as the Hellenistic period.

Alexander’s name in hieroglyphics

Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 330 BCE, Egypt; Louvre Museum.

The eastern borders of Alexander’s empire began to collapse during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as Sandrokottos), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.

Hellenization

The term
“Hellenization” was coined to denote the spread of Greek language,
culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander’s
conquest. Alexander deliberately pursued Hellenization policies in the
communities he conquered. While his intentions may have simply been to
disseminate Greek culture, it is more likely that his policies were pragmatic
in nature and intended to aid in the rule of his enormous empire via cultural
homogenization. Alexander’s Hellenization policies can also be viewed as a
result of his probable megalomania. Later his successors explicitly rejected these
policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region,
accompanied by a distinct and opposite “Orientalization” of the successor
states.

The core of
Hellenistic culture was essentially Athenian. The close association of men from
across Greece in Alexander’s army directly led to the emergence of the largely
Attic-based koine (or
“common”) Greek dialect. Koine spread
throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua
franca of
Hellenistic lands, and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Furthermore,
town planning, education, local government, and art during the Hellenistic
periods were all based on classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new
forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic.

The Founding of Cities

Over the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some 20 cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris River. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities’ locations reflected trade routes, as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, and little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander’s death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander’s death, many of these cities were thriving with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.

Alexander’s cities were
most likely intended to be administrative headquarters for his empire,
primarily settled by Greeks, many of whom would have served in Alexander’s
military campaigns. The purpose of these administrative centers was to control the
newly conquered subject populations. Alexander attempted to create a unified
ruling class in conquered territories like Persia, often using marriage ties to
intermingle the conquered with conquerors. He also adopted elements of the Persian
court culture, adopting his own version of their royal robes, and imitating some
court ceremonies. Many Macedonians resented these policies, believing
hybridization of Greek and foreign cultures to be irreverent. 

Alexander’s attempts at
unification also extended to his army. He placed Persian soldiers, some of who
had been trained in the Macedonian style, within Macedonian ranks, solving
chronic manpower problems.

Division of the Empire

Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir because his son, Alexander IV, was born after Alexander’s death. According to Diodorus, an ancient Greek historian, Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom. His laconic reply was, tôi kratistôi (“to the strongest”). Another, more plausible, story claims that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, thereby nominating him as his official successor.

Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Alexander’s unborn baby would be king, if male. He also offered himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater, as guardians of Alexander’s unborn child. However, the infantry rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander’s half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, as Alexander’s successor. Eventually the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, Perdiccas and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. 

Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BCE, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The Successors” (Diadochi) ensued, before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.

7.7.4: The Legacy of Alexander the Great

Four stable power blocks emerged following the
death of Alexander the Great: the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid
Empire, the Attalid Dynasty of the Kingdom of Pergamon, and Macedon.

Learning Objective

Evaluate Alexander the Great’s legacy as carried
out by his successors

Key Points

• After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BCE,
  Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The
  Successors” (Diadochi) ensued
  before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: the
  Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire, the Kingdom of Pergamon in
  Asia Minor, and Macedon.
• The Ptolemaic Kingdom was ruled by the Ptolemaic
  dynasty, starting with Ptolemy I Soter’s accession to the throne following the
  death of Alexander the Great. The dynasty survived until the death of Cleopatra
  VII in 30 BCE, at which point Egypt was conquered by the Romans.
• Although the Ptolemaic Kingdom observed the Egyptian
  religion and customs, Greek inhabitants were treated as a privileged minority.
• The Seleucid Empire was a major center of
  Hellenistic culture where Greek customs prevailed and the Greek political elite
  dominated, though mostly in urban areas.
• The Attalid kingdom of Pergamon began as a rump
  state, but was expanded by subsequent rulers. 
• The Attalids were some of the most loyal
  supporters of Rome in the Hellenistic world and were known for their generous and
  intelligent rule.
• The Macedonian regime
  is the only successor state to Alexander the Great’s empire that maintained
  archaic perceptions of kingship, and elided the adoption of Hellenistic
  monarchical customs.

Key Terms

satrap

A governor of a province in the Hellenistic
empire. The word is also used metaphorically to refer to leaders who are
heavily influenced by larger superpowers or hegemonies, and regionally act as a surrogate
for those larger players.

proskynesis

A traditional Persian act of bowing or prostrating oneself before a
person of higher social rank.

Background

Alexander’s death was so sudden that when reports of his
death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no
obvious or legitimate heir because his son, Alexander IV, was born after
Alexander’s death. According to Diodorus, an ancient Greek historian,
Alexander’s companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his
kingdom. His laconic reply was tôi kratistôi (“to the
strongest”). Another, more plausible, story claims that Alexander passed
his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, thereby
nominating him as his official successor.

Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting
that Alexander’s unborn baby would be king, if male. He also offered himself,
Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater, as guardians of Alexander’s unborn child.
However, the infantry rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded
from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander’s half-brother, Philip
Arrhidaeus, as Alexander’s successor. Eventually the two sides reconciled, and
after the birth of Alexander IV, Perdiccas and Philip III were appointed joint
kings, albeit in name only. 

Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the
Macedonians. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BCE, Macedonian unity
collapsed, and 40 years of war between “The Successors” (Diadochi) ensued before the
Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: the Ptolemaic Kingdom
of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the east, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia
Minor, and Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were
murdered.

The Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt

The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a Hellenistic kingdom
based in Egypt, and ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty, starting with Ptolemy I Soter’s
accession to the throne following the death of Alexander the Great. The
Ptolemaic dynasty survived until the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE, at which
point Egypt was conquered by the Romans. Ptolemy was appointed as satrap of
Egypt in 323 BCE, by Perdiccas during the succession crisis that erupted
following Alexander the Great. From that time, Ptolemy ruled Egypt nominally in
the name of joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV. As Alexander the Great’s
empire disintegrated, however, Ptolemy established himself as a ruler in his
own right. In 321 BCE, Ptolemy defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas.
During the Wars of the Diadochi (322-301 BCE), Ptolemy further consolidated his
position within Egypt and the region by taking the title of King.

Ptolemy I Soter

Bust of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt (305-282 BCE) and founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty. The identification is based upon coin effigies.

Early in the Ptolemaic dyansty, Egyptian religion
and customs were observed, and magnificent new temples were built in the style
of the old pharaohs. During the reign of Ptolemies II and III, thousands of
Macedonian veterans were rewarded with farm land grants, and settled in colonies
and garrisons throughout the country. Within a century, Greek influence had
spread throughout the country and intermarriage produced a large Greco-Egyptian
educated class. Despite this, the Greeks remained a privileged minority in Ptolemaic
Egypt. Greek individuals lived under Greek law, received a Greek education,
were tried in Greek courts, and were citizens of Greek cities, rather than
Egyptian cities.

The Seleucid Empire

Seleucid Empire

Seleucid Empire at its greatest extent, 281 BCE.

The Seleucid Empire was a Hellenistic state ruled
by the Seleucid Dynasty, which existed from 312 BCE-63 BCE. It was founded
by Seleucus I Nicator following the dissolution of Alexander the Great’s
empire. Following Ptolemy’s successes in the Wars of the Diadochi, Seleucus,
then a senior officer in the Macedonian Royal Army, received Babylonia. From
there, he expanded his dominion to include much of Alexander’s near eastern
territories. At the height of its power, the Seleucid Empire encompassed central
Anatolia, Persia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and what is now Kuwait, Afghanistan,
and parts of Pakistan and Turkmenistan. Seleucus himself traveled as far as
India in his campaigns. Seleucid expansion into Anatolia and Greece was halted,
however, after decisive defeats at the hands of the Roman army. 

The Seleucid Empire was a major center of
Hellenistic culture, where Greek customs prevailed and the Greek political elite
dominated, though mostly in urban areas. Existing Greek populations within the
empire were supplemented with Greek immigrants.

The Kingdom of Pergamon

Asia Minor, 188 BCE

The Kingdom of Pergamon (colored olive), shown at its greatest extent in 188 BCE.

The ancient Greek city of Pergamon was taken by
Lysimachus, King of Thrace, in 301 BCE, a short-lived possession that ended
when the kingdom of Thrace collapsed. It became the capital of a new kingdom of
Pergamon, which Philetaerus founded in 281 BCE, thus beginning the rule of the
Attalid Dynasty. The Attalid kingdom began as a rump state, but was expanded by
subsequent rulers. The Attalids themselves were some of the most loyal
supporters of Rome in the Hellenistic world. Under Attalus I (r. 241-197 BCE),
the Attalids allied with Rome against Philip V of Macedon, during the first and
second Macedonian Wars. They allied with Rome again under Eumenes II (r. 197-158
BCE) against Perseus of Macedon, during the Third Macedonian War. Additionally,
in exchange for their support against the Seleucids, the Attalids were given
all former Seleucid domains in Asia Minor.

The Attalids were known for their intelligent and
generous rule. Many historical documents from the era demonstrate that the
Attalids supported the growth of towns by sending in skilled artisans and remitting
taxes. They also allowed Greek cities to maintain nominal independence and sent
gifts to Greek cultural sites, such as Delphi, Delos, and Athens, and even remodeled the Acropolis of Pergamon after the Acropolis in Athens. When Attalus III (r. 138-133
BCE) died without an heir, he bequeathed his entire kingdom to Rome to prevent civil
war.

Macedon

The Kingdom of Macedon at the death of Philip II (336 BCE)

Macedon, or Macedonia, was the dominant state of
Hellenistic Greece. In the partition of Alexander’s empire among the Diadochi,
Macedon fell to the Antipatrid Dynasty, which was headed by Antipater and his
son, Cassander. Following Cassander’s death in 297 BCE, Macedon slid into a long
period of civil strife. Antigonus II (r. 277-239 BCE) successfully restored
order and prosperity in the region, and established a stable monarchy under the
Antigonid Dynasty, though he lost control of many Greek city-states in the process.

Notably, the Macedonian regime is the only
successor state to Alexander the Great’s empire that maintained archaic
perceptions of kingship, and elided the adoption of Hellenistic monarchical
customs. The Macedonian king was never deified in the same way that kings of the
Ptolemaic and Seleucid Dynasties had been. Additionally, the custom of proskynesis,
a traditional Persian act of bowing or prostrating oneself before a person of
higher social rank, was never adopted. Instead, Macedonian subjects addressed
their kings in a far more casual manner, and kings still consulted with their
aristocracy in the process of making decisions.

During the reigns of
Philip V (r. 221-179 BCE) and his son Perseus (r. 179-168 BCE), Macedon clashed
with the rising Roman republic. During the 2^nd and 1^st centuries BCE, Macedon
fought a series of wars against Rome. Two decisive defeats in 197 and 168 BCE
resulted in the deposition of the Antigonid Dynasty, and the dismantling of the
kingdom of Macedon.