15.4: Democracy

15.4.1: Democracy

Learning Objective

Discuss the definition of democracy: its core qualities, and any controversy over those qualities

Key Points

• The most common system that is deemed democratic in the modern world is parliamentary democracy in which the voting public takes part in elections and chooses politicians to represent them in a legislative assembly.
• A purer form is direct democracy in which the voting public makes direct decisions or participates directly in the political process.
• Elements considered essential to democracy include freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press, so that citizens are adequately informed and able to vote according to their own best interests as they see them.
• Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. However, it is also possible for a minority to be oppressed by a tyranny of the majority in the absence of governmental or constitutional protections of individual or group rights.

Key Terms

egalitarian

Characterized by social equality and equal rights for all people.

civil society

All of the institutions, voluntary organizations, and corporate bodies that are less than the state but greater than the family.

Parliament

A democratic government’s legislature.

Examples

• In a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are generally protected by a constitution.
• In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (while maintaining judicial independence).

Democracy is an egalitarian form of government in which all the citizens of a nation together determine public policy, the laws, and the actions of their state. It requires that all citizens (meeting certain qualifications) have an equal opportunity to express their opinion. In practice, democracy is the extent to which a given system approximates this ideal. A given political system is referred to as a democracy if it allows a certain approximation to ideal democracy. Although no country has ever granted all its citizens (i.e. including minors) the vote, most countries today hold regular elections based on egalitarian principles, at least in theory.

The most common system that is deemed democratic in the modern world is parliamentary democracy in which the voting public takes part in elections and chooses politicians to represent them in a legislative assembly. The members of the assembly then make decisions with a majority vote. A purer form is direct democracy in which the voting public makes direct decisions or participates directly in the political process. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level and in exceptions on the national level in many countries, although these systems coexist with representative assemblies.

The term democracy comes from the Greek word δ (dēmokratía), “rule of the people,” which was coined from δ (dēmos), “people,” and κ (kratia), “rule,” in the middle of the 5th-4^th century BCE to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BCE. Other cultures since Greece have significantly contributed to the evolution of democracy, such as Ancient Rome, Europe, and North and South America. The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages and the Age of Enlightenment and in the American and French Revolutions. The right to vote has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), with New Zealand the first nation to grant universal suffrage for all its citizens in 1893.

Elements considered essential to democracy include freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press, so that citizens are adequately informed and able to vote according to their own best interests as they see them. The term “democracy” is often used as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include elements such as political pluralism, equality before the law, the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances, due process, civil liberties, human rights, and elements of civil society outside the government. Democracy is often confused with the republic form of government. In some definitions of republic, a republic is a form of democracy. Other definitions make republic a separate, unrelated term.

While there is no universally accepted definition of democracy, equality and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. These principles are reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are generally protected by a constitution.

According to some theories of democracy, popular sovereignty is the founding principle of such a system. However, the democratic principle has also been expressed as “the freedom to call something into being which did not exist before, which was not given … and which therefore, strictly speaking, could not be known. ” This type of freedom, which is connected to human natality, or the capacity to begin anew, sees democracy as “not only a political system… [but] an ideal, an aspiration, really, intimately connected to and dependent upon a picture of what it is to be human—of what it is a human should be to be fully human. “

In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (whilst maintaining judicial independence). In other cases, democracy is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term “democracy” is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles are applicable to private organizations and other groups as well.

Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. However, it is also possible for a minority to be oppressed by a tyranny of the majority in the absence of governmental or constitutional protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of an ideal representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively and procedurally.

The French Revolution and the Birth of Democracy

This painting, called Le bivouac des sans-coulottes, depicts a scene from the French Revolution, which ushered in democracy in France.

15.4.2: Participatory Democracy

Learning Objective

List the key qualities of participatory democracy and some of its historical manifestations

Key Points

• Participatory democracy tends to advocate more involved forms of citizen participation than traditional representative democracy.
• Participatory democracy strives to create opportunities for all members of a population to make meaningful contributions to decision making, and seeks to broaden the range of people who have access to such opportunities.
• In 8th and 7th century Ancient Greece, the informal distributed power structure of the villages and minor towns began to be displaced with collectives of Oligarchs seizing power as the villages and towns coalesced into city states.
• Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of a law’s legitimacy.
• Demarchy is a hypothetical system where government is heavily decentralized into smaller independent groups and where randomly selected decision makers have been chosen to govern, and each group is responsible for one or several functions in society.
• Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of a law’s legitimacy.
• Demarchy is a hypothetical system where government is heavily decentralized into smaller independent groups. Each group is responsible for one or several functions in society.

Key Terms

deliberative democracy

Deliberative democracy or discursive democracy is a form of democracy in which deliberation is central to decision making. Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of legitimacy for the lawmaking processes.

Demarchy

Demarchy (or lottocracy) is a form of government in which the state is governed by randomly selected decision makers who have been selected by sortition (lot) from a broadly inclusive pool of eligible citizens.

Occupy movement

The Occupy movement is an international protest movement against social and economic inequality; its primary goal is to to make economic structure and power relations in society more fair.

Example

• In the United States, many states and local communities have tried to reinvigorate participatory democracy by introducing novel types of ballot initiatives. An initiative or proposition is begun by a group of interested citizens who gather support for a measure they would like to put to a popular vote. Usually, they must gather a certain number of signatures to show that the initiative has enough support to give it a chance in an election. If they gather enough signatures, the initiative will appear on a ballot and be put to a popular vote. Through this process, laws can be made by direct vote rather than by elected representatives in a legislature. One recent example of a ballot initiative was Proposition 8 in California in 2008, which was passed by the people and banned same-sex marriage in the state (until it was overturned by the court).

Participatory democracy is a process emphasizing the broad participation of constituents in the direction and operation of political systems. The etymological roots of democracy (Greek demos and kratos) imply that the people are in power and, thus, that all democracies are participatory. However, participatory democracy tends to advocate more involved forms of citizen participation than traditional representative democracy. Participatory democracy strives to create opportunities for all members of a population to make meaningful contributions to decision making and seeks to broaden the range of people who have access to such opportunities.

Participatory democracy has been a feature of human society since at least classical times. It is believed to have been a common practice of undeveloped people and hunter-gatherer tribes. In seventh and eighth century ancient Greece, the informal distributed power structure of the villages and minor towns began to be displaced with collectives of oligarchs seizing power as the villages and towns coalesced into city-states. A brief period where a region was governed almost totally by participatory democracy occurred during the Spanish civil war, from 1936-1938, in the parts of Spain controlled by anarchist Republicans. In the 1960s, the promotion and use of participatory democracy was a major theme for elements of the American Left. In 2011, participatory democracy became a notable feature of the Occupy movement, with Occupy camps around the world making decisions based on the outcome of working groups where every protestor gets to have his say, and by general assemblies where the decisions taken by working groups are effectively aggregated together .

Occupy Wall Street, Washington Square Park 2011

The Occupy Wall Street General Assembly meets in Washington Square Park for the first time on Saturday, October 8.

Political variants of participatory democracy include consensus democracy, deliberative democracy, demarchy, and grassroots democracy. Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of a law’s legitimacy. It adopts elements of both consensus decision making and majority rule. When practiced by small groups, it is possible for decision making to be both fully participatory and deliberative. But for large political entities, the democratic reform dilemma makes it difficult for any system of decision making based on political equality to involve both deliberation and inclusive participation. Demarchy is a hypothetical system where government is heavily decentralized into smaller independent groups and where randomly selected decision makers have been chosen to govern, and each group is responsible for one or several functions in society. The system seeks to avoid problems with centralized and electoral governance, while still providing a stable democratic system.

Some scholars argue for refocusing the term on community-based activity within the domain of civil society, based on the belief that a strong non-governmental public sphere is a precondition for the emergence of a strong liberal democracy.

15.4.3: Monarchies and Liberal Democracies

Learning Objective

Distinguish between an absolute monarchy and a constitutional monarchy

Key Points

• When the monarch has no or few legal restraints in state and political matters, it is called an absolute monarchy and is a form of autocracy.
• Monarchies are associated with political or sociocultural hereditary rule, in which monarchs rule for life (although some monarchs do not hold lifetime positions).
• An absolute monarchy refers to when the monarch has no or few legal restraints in state and political matters.
• In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch retains a unique legal and ceremonial role.
• Throughout history, monarchies have been abolished, either through revolutions, legislative reforms, coups d’état, or wars.
• Liberal democracy traces its origins—and its name—to the European 18th century, also known as the Age of Enlightenment.

Key Terms

absolute monarchy

A state over which a sole monarch has absolute and unlimited power.

constitutional monarchy

A monarchy in which the monarch’s power is limited by a written constitution.

Enlightenment

A 17th and 18th-century philosophical movement in European history; the Age of Enlightenment or Age of Reason emphasizing rationalism.

Example

• Currently, 44 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state, 16 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognize Queen Elizabeth II of England as their head of state.

A monarchy is a form of government in which sovereignty is actually or nominally embodied in a single individual, the monarch. A monarch that has few or no legal restraints in state and political matters is referred to as an absolute monarchy, a form of autocracy. Monarchies are associated with political or sociocultural hereditary rule, in which monarchs rule for life (although some monarchs do not hold lifetime positions). Throughout history, monarchies have been abolished, either through revolutions, legislative reforms, coups d’état or wars. The twentieth century saw a major escalation of this process, with many monarchies violently overthrown by revolution or war, or abolished as part of the process of decolonization. The 21^st century has already seen several monarchies abolished, usually by peaceful means in a referendum.

Monarchy was the most common form of government into the 19^th century, but it is no longer prevalent, at least at the national level. Where it exists, it now often takes the form of constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch retains a unique legal and ceremonial role, but exercises limited or no political power pursuant to a constitution or tradition which allocates governing authority elsewhere. Currently, 44 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state—16 of those are Commonwealth realms that recognize Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state.

Liberal democracy traces its origins, and its name, to the European 18^th century, also known as the Age of Enlightenment. At the time, the vast majority of European states were monarchies, with political power held either by the monarch or the aristocracy. Near the end of the 18^th century, these ideas inspired the American and French Revolutions, the latter giving birth to the ideology of liberalism, and instituting forms of government that attempted to apply the principles of the Enlightenment philosophers into practice. Reforms and revolutions helped move most European countries towards liberal democracy. Liberalism ceased being a fringe opinion and joined the political mainstream.

15.4.4: The Spread of Liberal Democracy

Learning Objective

Defend the notion of liberal democracy using examples from its enlightenment origins

Key Points

• Liberal democracy is a common form of representative democracy.
• According to the principles of liberal democracy, elections should be free and fair, with the presence of multiple and distinct political parties.
• The liberal democracies usually have universal suffrage, granting all adult citizens the right to vote regardless of race, gender, or property ownership.
• Liberal democracy traces its origins to the European 18th century, also known as the Age of Enlightenment.
• The Enlightenment intellectuals believed that human affairs should be guided by reason and principles of liberty and equality. They were opposed to the rule of undemocratic and illegitimate monarchies and aristocracies.
• Liberal democracies are currently the dominant form of political ideology in the modern world.
• The rule of law refers to the concept that laws should apply to those who govern as well as to the governed.
• The ideas of the Enlightenment inspired the American Revolution and the French Revolution, which gave birth to the ideology of liberalism.
• Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, reforms and revolutions helped move most European countries towards liberal democracy.

Key Terms

Enlightenment

A 17th and 18th-century philosophical movement in European history; the Age of Enlightenment or Age of Reason emphasizing rationalism.

the rule of law

The rule of law is a legal maxim whereby governmental decisions are made by applying known legal principles.

liberalism

Any political movement founded on the autonomy and personal freedom of the individual, progress and reform, and government by law with the consent of the governed.

Example

• The United States, Canada, France, and other Western countries are examples of liberal democracies.

Liberal democracy is a common form of representative democracy. According to the principles of liberal democracy, elections should be free and fair, with the presence of multiple and distinct political parties. Liberal democracies also usually have universal suffrage, granting all adult citizens the right to vote.

Liberal democracy traces its origins—and its name—to the European 18^th century, also known as the Age of Enlightenment. At the time, the vast majority of European states were monarchies, with political power held either by the monarch or the aristocracy. The possibility of democracy had not been seriously considered in political theory since classical antiquity, and the widely held belief was that democracies would be inherently unstable and chaotic in their policies due to the changing whims of the people. It was further believed that democracy was contrary to human nature, as human beings were seen to be inherently evil, violent, and in need of a strong leader to restrain their destructive impulses.

The Enlightenment

These conventional views were first challenged by a relatively small group of Enlightenment intellectuals who believed that human affairs should be guided by reason and principles of liberty and equality. They argued that all people are created equal, and therefore political authority cannot be justified on the basis of so-called noble blood, a supposed privileged connection to God, or any other characteristic alleged to make one person superior to others. They further argued that governments exist to serve the people, not vice versa, and that laws should apply to those who govern as well as to the governed, a concept known as the rule of law.

Reform and Revolution

Near the end of the 18^th century, these ideas inspired the American Revolution and the French Revolution, the pair of which gave birth to the ideology of liberalism and instituted forms of government that attempted to apply the principles of Enlightenment philosophy in practice. The dominions of the British Empire became laboratories for liberal democracy from the mid-19^th century onward. In Canada, responsible government began in the 1840s and in Australia and New Zealand parliamentary government elected by male suffrage and secret ballot was established from the 1850s and female suffrage achieved from the 1890s.

Reforms and revolutions helped move most European countries towards liberal democracy. Liberalism ceased to be a fringe opinion and joined the political mainstream. The political spectrum changed; traditional monarchy became more and more a fringe view and liberal democracy became more and more mainstream. By the end of the 19^th century, liberal democracy was no longer only a liberal idea, but an idea supported by many different ideologies. After World War I and especially after World War II, liberal democracy achieved a dominant position among theories of government and is now endorsed by the vast majority of the political spectrum.

Electoral Democracies

Countries highlighted in blue are designated “electoral democracies” in Freedom House’s 2010 survey Freedom in the World.

15.4.5: Democracy in the U.S.

Learning Objective

Diagram the basic form of the United States government, focusing on its branches and electoral system

Key Points

• The executive branch is headed by the President and is independent of the legislature.
• Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives.
• The Judicial branch, which is composed of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, exercises judicial power.
• Suffrage is nearly universal for citizens 18 years of age and older.
• On a national level, the President is elected indirectly by the people through an Electoral College.
• The modern political party system in the United States is a two-party system dominated by the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.
• Special interest groups advocate the cause of their specific constituency.

Key Terms

legislative power

Legislative power refers to the power of a legislature, or deliberative assembly to pass, amend and repeal laws.

electoral college

The Electoral College consists of individual state appointed electors who formally elect the President and Vice President of the United States.

suffrage

The right or chance to vote, express an opinion or participate in a decision.

Example

• In the United States, suffrage is nearly universal for citizens 18 years of age and older.

The United States is a federal constitutional republic in which the President of the United States (the head of state and government), Congress, and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government, and the federal government shares sovereignty with the state governments. The executive branch is headed by the President and is independent of the legislature.

Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch, composed of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, exercises judicial power. The judiciary’s function is to interpret the United States Constitution and federal laws and regulations. This includes resolving disputes between the executive and legislative branches. The federal government’s organization is explained in the Constitution.

In the United States, suffrage is nearly universal for citizens 18 years of age and older. All states and the District of Columbia contribute to the electoral vote for president. Unlike the United Kingdom and other similar parliamentary systems that directly choose a particular political party, Americans vote for a specific candidate. Within the federal government, officials are elected at the federal (national), state and local levels. On a national level, the President is elected indirectly by the people through an Electoral College. People vote for electors who pledge, in turn, to cast their electoral votes for a particular candidate. In modern times, the electors virtually always vote with the popular vote of their state. All members of Congress and offices at the state and local levels are directly elected.

The modern political party system in the United States is a two-party system dominated by the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. These two parties have won every United States presidential election since 1852, and have controlled the United States Congress since at least 1856. Periodically, several other third parties achieve relatively minor representation at the national and state levels. Among the two major parties, the Democratic Party generally positions itself as left-of-center in American politics and supports a liberal platform, while the Republican Party generally positions itself as right-of-center and supports a conservative platform.

Special interest groups advocate the social, economic, and political causes of their specific constituencies. Business organizations will favor low corporate taxes and restrictions of the right to strike, whereas labor unions will support minimum wage legislation and protection for collective bargaining. Other private interest groups, such as churches and ethnic groups, are more concerned about broader policy issues that can impact their organizations or their beliefs. The amount of money spent by these special interests continues to grow, as campaigns become increasingly expensive. Many Americans have the feeling that these wealthy interests, whether corporations, unions, or specially organized campaign finance organizations called Political Action Committees (PACs), are so powerful that ordinary citizens can do little to counteract their influence.

The United State Capitol Building

The United States congress meets in the Capitol.

15.4.6: The Political Participation of Women

Learning Objective

Break down the achievements and shortcomings of the battle for women’s rights in the U.S.

Key Points

• Women’s rights are entitlements and freedoms claimed for women and girls of all ages in many societies.
• In some places these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed.
• Woman suffrage in the United States was achieved gradually, at state and local levels, during the 19th century and early 20th century, culminating in 1920 with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.
• The Nineteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution states that “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex”.
• The Equal Rights Amendment was a proposed measure that stated that “equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex.” The amendment died in 1982 because not enough states had ratified it.
• While women are generally as likely to vote as men in developed countries, women are underrepresented in political positions. Women make up a very small percentage of elected officials, both at local and national levels.

Key Terms

Equal Rights Amendment

The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal rights for women.

Nineteenth Amendment

The amendment to the United States Constitution, passed in 1920, that gave women the right to vote.

suffrage

The right or chance to vote, express an opinion or participate in a decision.

Examples

• Women make up a very small percentage of elected officials, both at local and national levels. In the U.S., for instance, in the 109th Congress (2005-2007) there were only 14 female Senators (out of 100) and 70 Congressional Representatives (out of 435).
• Women make up a very small percentage of elected officials, both at local and national levels. In the U.S., for instance, in the 109th Congress (2005-2007) there were only 14 female Senators (out of 100) and 70 Congressional Representatives (out of 435).

Women’s rights are entitlements and freedoms claimed for women and girls of all ages in many societies. In some places these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed. The women’s rights movement functions in response to an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls in favor of men and boys.

Women’s suffrage in the United States was achieved gradually, at state and local levels, during the 19^th century and early 20^th century, culminating in 1920 with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment stated, “the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” Politicians responded to the newly enlarged electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women—prohibition, child health, public schools, and world peace. Women responded to these issues, but in terms of general voting, they shared the same outlook and the same voting behavior as men.

In the United States, the National Organization for Women (NOW) was created in 1966 with the purpose of bringing about equality for all women. NOW was one important group that fought for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). This amendment stated that “equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account of sex.” But there was disagreement on how the proposed amendment would be understood. Supporters believed it would guarantee women equal treatment. But critics feared it might deny women the right be financially supported by their husbands. The amendment died in 1982 because not enough states had ratified it. ERAs have been introduced in subsequent sessions of Congress, but they have never been ratified.

While women are generally as likely to vote in developed countries, they are underrepresented in political positions. Women make up a very small percentage of elected officials, both at local and national levels. In the U.S., for instance, in the 109^th Congress (2005-2007) there were only 14 female Senators (out of 100) and 70 Congressional Representatives (out of 435).

Voting Women

Women standing in line to vote in Bangladesh.

15.4.7: Theories of Democracy

Learning Objective

Distinguish between parliamentary democracy, minimal democracy, direct democracy, radical democracy and deliberative democracy, and relate them to the concept of “true” democracy and freedom

Key Points

• Democracy, or “rule by the people,” is an egalitarian form of government in which all the citizens of a nation determine public policy, the laws, and the actions of their state together, requiring that all citizens have an equal opportunity to express their opinion.
• The most common system that is deemed “democratic” in the modern world is parliamentary democracy, in which the voting public takes part in elections and chooses politicians to represent them in a legislative assembly.
• Theoretically, Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity) with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy) and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy).
• Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections.
• Direct democracy holds that citizens should participate directly in making laws and policies, and not do so through their representatives.
• Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by discussion.
• Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by discussion.
• Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society

Key Terms

direct democracy

Direct democracy (or pure democracy) is a form of government in which people vote on policy initiatives directly, as opposed to a representative democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives.

deliberative democracy

Deliberative democracy or discursive democracy is a form of democracy in which deliberation is central to decision making. Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of legitimacy for the lawmaking processes.

autocracy

A form of government in which unlimited power is held by a single individual.

democracy

a system of rule by the people, especially as a form of government; either directly or through elected representatives

What Is A Democracy?

Democracy, or rule by the people, is an egalitarian form of government in which all the citizens of a nation determine public policy, the laws, and the actions of their state together. Democracy requires that all citizens have an equal opportunity to express their opinion. In practice, democracy is the extent to which a given system approximates this ideal, and a given political system is referred to as a democracy if it allows a certain approximation to ideal democracy. Although no country has ever granted all its citizens the right to vote, most countries today hold regular elections based on egalitarian principles, at least in theory.

The most common system that is deemed democratic in the modern world is parliamentary democracy, in which the voting public takes part in elections and chooses politicians to represent them in a legislative assembly. The members of the assembly then make decisions with a majority vote. A purer form is direct democracy in which the voting public makes direct decisions or participates directly in the political process. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level and, in exceptions, on the national level in many countries, though these systems coexist with representative assemblies.

Theoretically, Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity) with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy) and with rule by a single person (tyranny or autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). For Aristotle, the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy can the citizens have a share in freedom. There are two main aspects of freedom: (1) being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and; (2) to be able to live as one pleases.

Among political theorists, there are many contending conceptions of democracy:

Minimalist Democracy

Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not rule because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded.

Direct Democracy

Direct democracy, on the other hand, holds that citizens should participate directly in making laws and policies, and not do so through their representatives. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view, declaring that political activity can be valuable in itself, since it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, according to this theory, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies for themselves.

Deliberative Democracy

Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by discussion. Deliberative democrats contend that laws and policies should be based upon reasons that all citizens can accept. The political arena should be one in which leaders and citizens make arguments, listen, and change their minds.

Radical Democracy

Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy’s role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent, and antagonisms in the decision making processes.

Aristotle

Aristotle was one of the first theorists of democracy.

15.4.8: Public Sphere and Civil Society

Learning Objective

Formulate an argument which advocates for a strong civil society based on the definitions of civil society in this text

Key Points

• Civil society is the arena outside of the family, the state, and the market where people associate to advance common interests.
• Voluntary associations build social capital, trust, and shared values, which are transferred into the political sphere and help to hold society together, facilitating an understanding of the interconnectedness of society and interests within it.
• Critics argue that the public sphere can be undemocratic, noting that civil society actors have now obtained a remarkable amount of political power without anyone directly electing or appointing them.
• The public sphere is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action.
• The basic belief in public sphere theory is that political action is steered by the public sphere and that the only legitimate governments are those that listen to the public sphere.
• The basic belief in public sphere theory is that political action is steered by the public sphere and that the only legitimate governments are those that listen to the public sphere.

Key Terms

Third sector

The voluntary sector or community sector (also non-profit sector or “not-for-profit” sector) is the sphere of social activity undertaken by organizations that are for non-profit and non-governmental. This sector is also called the third sector, in reference to the public sector and the private sector. Civic sector is another term for the sector, emphasizing the sector’s relationship to civil society.

Public sphere

The public sphere is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It mediates between the private sphere and the Sphere of Public Authority.

Sphere of Public Authority

The Sphere of Public Authority is that of the state, the realm of the police, and the ruling class.

Example

• In his book Bowling Alone, Robert Putnam gave the famous example of bowling leagues as a voluntary association that makes up civil society. Years ago, people used to come together in bowling leagues to bowl with their friends and compete against other leagues. These leagues brought people together outside of work and family obligations, giving them a third space for association. But over the years, bowling leagues have become less common (and, according to Putnam, so have all types of voluntary associations). Because of this, people have fewer ties to other people outside of work or home. That has decreased opportunities to engage with others, build social capital, trust, shared values, and so on. According to Putnam, this has had a deleterious effect on democracy.

Civil society is the arena outside of the family, the state, and the market where people associate to advance common interests. It is sometimes considered to include the family and the private sphere and then referred to as the third sector of society, distinct from government and business. Dictionary.com’s 21^st Century Lexicon defines civil society as 1) the aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens, or 2) individuals and organizations in a society which are independent of the government. Sometimes the term is used in the more general sense of “the elements such as freedom of speech, an independent judiciary, etc, that make up a democratic society. “

Civil Society and Democratic Political Society

The literature on relations between civil society and democratic political society have their roots in early liberal writings like those of Alexis de Tocqueville. However, they were developed in significant ways by 20^th century theorists like Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, who identified the role of political culture in a democratic order as vital. They argued that the political element of many voluntary organizations facilitates better awareness and a more informed citizenry, who make better voting choices, participate in politics, and hold government more accountable as a result. The statutes of these organizations have often been considered micro-constitutions because they accustom participants to the formalities of democratic decision making.

More recently, Robert D. Putnam has argued that even non-political organizations in civil society are vital for democracy. This is because they build social capital, trust, and shared values, which are transferred into the political sphere and help to hold society together, facilitating an understanding of the interconnectedness of society, and interests within it.

Others, however, have questioned how democratic civil society actually is. Some have noted that the civil society actors have now obtained a remarkable amount of political power without anyone directly electing or appointing them. It has also been argued that civil society is biased towards the global north. Partha Chatterjee has argued that, in most of the world, “civil society is demographically limited. ” For Jai Sen, civil society is a neo-colonial project driven by global elites in their own interests. Finally, other scholars have argued that, since the concept of civil society is closely related to democracy and representation, it should in turn be linked with ideas of nationality and nationalism.

The Public Sphere

The public sphere is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action. It is “a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment. ” The public sphere can be seen as “a theater in modern societies in which political participation is enacted through the medium of talk” and “a realm of social life in which public opinion can be formed. “

The public sphere mediates between the private sphere and the Sphere of Public Authority, “The private sphere comprised civil society in the narrower sense, that is to say, the realm of commodity exchange and of social labor. ” Whereas the Sphere of Public Authority dealt with the state, or realm of the police and the ruling class, the public sphere crossed over both these realms and “through the vehicle of public opinion it put the state in touch with the needs of society. ” “This area is conceptually distinct from the state: it [is] a site for the production and circulation of discourses that can in principle be critical of the state. ” The public sphere “is also distinct from the official economy; it is not an arena of market relations but rather one of discursive relations, a theater for debating and deliberating rather than for buying and selling. ” These distinctions between “state apparatuses, economic markets, and democratic associations…are essential to democratic theory. ” The people themselves came to see the public sphere as a regulatory institution against the authority of the state. The study of the public sphere centers on the idea of participatory democracy, and how public opinion becomes political action.

The basic belief in public sphere theory is that political action is steered by the public sphere and that the only legitimate governments are those that listen to the public sphere. “Democratic governance rests on the capacity of and opportunity for citizens to engage in enlightened debate. ” Much of the debate over the public sphere involves what is the basic theoretical structure of the public sphere, how information is deliberated in the public sphere, and what influence the public sphere has over society.

Elks Lodge in Ashland, Wisconsin

Voluntary associations, such as Elks Clubs, make up the public sphere.

15.5: The U.S. Political System

15.5.1: The U.S. Political System

The United States is a representative federal democracy driven by elections in which citizens’ and lobbyists’ diverse interests compete.

Learning Objective

List three defining characteristics of the U.S. political system

Key Points

• U.S. politics are shaped by two major political parties: Democrats and Republicans.
• Citizens have competing interests that differ based on their different backgrounds—the types of jobs they have, their race or age, whether they have children, etc.
• Politics are also shaped by special interest groups, lobbyists, and the media.

Key Term

lobbyist

A person remunerated to persuade (to lobby) politicians to vote in a certain way or otherwise use their office to affect a desired result.

The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—whose powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the federal courts, including the Supreme Court, respectively .

Congress

The legislative branch of the U.S. government.

The United States is a representative democracy. Citizens elect representatives to national, state, and local government; those representatives create the laws that govern U.S. society. Although nothing in U.S. law requires it, in practice, the political system is dominated by political parties. With rare exceptions, elections are decided between the two major parties: Democrats and Republicans. Although citizens vote for individual candidates, most candidates are affiliated with one part or another. Therefore, much of U.S. politics boils down to party politics.

The United States is also a diverse society, and citizens’ competing interests are reflected in politics. Citizens may have different voting preferences depending on their family backgrounds, the types of jobs they have, their race or age, whether they have children, and so on. To understand the electoral process, we must understand how different interests come into play.

Individual citizens are not the only players in U.S. politics. Although individual citizens are the only ones who can cast votes, special interest groups and lobbyists may influence elections and law-making with money and other resources. At times, this influence has grown so noticeable that some have called into question whether the U.S. is truly a democracy of the people or something more like an oligarchy of special interest groups. The media also play an important role in politics by influencing public sentiment and acting as an information filter.

15.5.2: Political Parties and Elections

Political parties seek to influence government policy by nominating select candidates to hold seats in political offices.

Learning Objective

Evaluate the party system, both in proportional representation voting systems and two-party systems

Key Points

• Parties participate in electoral campaigns and educational outreach or protest actions.
• Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or vision bolstered by a written platform with specific goals, forming a coalition among disparate interests.
• The type of electoral system is a major factor in determining the type of political party system.
• In countries that have a proportional representation voting system, three or more parties are often elected to parliament in significant proportions, and thus may have more access to public office.
• In two-party systems, two political parties dominate to such an extent that electoral success under the banner of any other party is almost impossible.
• Political parties, still called factions by some, are lobbied vigorously by organizations, businesses, and special interest groups such as trades unions.
• Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties are represented and elected to public office.
• Political parties, still called factions by some, are lobbied vigorously by organizations, businesses, and special interest groups such as trades unions.

Key Terms

proportional representation

A voting principle aimed at securing a close match between the percentage of votes that groups of candidates (usually political parties) obtain in elections, and the percentage of seats they receive in the elected body.

two-party system

A two-party system is a system where two major political parties dominate voting in nearly all elections at every level of government and, as a result, all or nearly all elected offices are members of one of the two major parties.

faction

A group of people, especially within a political organization, who express a shared belief or opinion different from people who are not part of the group.

Typically, a political party is a political organization seeking to influence government policy by nominating its own select candidates to hold seats in political office, via the process of electoral campaigning. Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or vision, bolstered by a written platform with specific goals that form a coalition among disparate interests.

The type of electoral system is a major factor in determining the type of party political system. In countries with a simple plurality voting system there can be as few as two parties elected in any given jurisdiction. In countries that have a proportional representation voting system, as exists throughout Europe, or a preferential voting system, such as in Australia or Ireland, three or more parties are often elected to parliament in significant proportions, allowing more access to public office. In a nonpartisan system, no official political parties exist, sometimes due to legal restrictions on political parties. In nonpartisan elections, each candidate is eligible for office on his or her own merits. In nonpartisan legislatures, no formal party alignments within the legislature is common.

In two-party systems, such as in Jamaica and Ghana, the two political parties dominate to such an extent that electoral success under the banner of any other party is virtually impossible. Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties are represented and elected to public office. Australia, Canada, Pakistan, India, Ireland, the United Kingdom, and Norway are examples of countries with two strong main parties, along with smaller or “third” parties that have also obtained representation. The smaller parties may form part of a coalition government together with one of the larger parties, or act independently.

Political parties, still called factions by some, are lobbied vigorously by organizations, businesses and special interest groups such as trades unions. Money and gifts-in-kind to a party, or its leading members, may be offered as incentives. Such donations are the traditional source of funding for all right-of-center cadre parties. In the late 19^th century, these parties faced opposition by the newly founded left-of-center workers’ parties, who formed a new party type—the mass membership party—and a new source of political fundraising—membership dues.

Republican Party, 1985

Ronald Reagan giving his Acceptance Speech at the Republican National Convention, Detroit, MI.

15.5.3: Voting Behavior

Voter turnout depends on socioeconomic factors such as education, income, gender, age, and race.

Learning Objective

Describe a few factors that determine voter turnout

Key Points

• Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. “Eligible voters” are defined differently in different countries, and the term should not be confused with the total adult population.
• Socioeconomic factors significantly affect how likely individuals are to vote. The most important socioeconomic factor in voter turnout is education. The more educated a person is, the more likely he or she is to vote.
• While women are generally as likely to vote as men in developed countries, women are underrepresented in political positions.
• Age is another crucial factor determining voter turnout. Young people are much less likely to vote than are older people, and they are less likely to be politicians.
• Generally, racial and ethnic minorities are less likely to vote in elections and are underrepresented in political positions.
• Political power is also stratified through income and education. Wealthier and more educated people are more likely to vote.

Key Terms

voter turnout

Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election.

socioeconomic factors

Socioeconomic factors include education, income, ethnicity, race, and gender.

racial and ethnic minorities

A group of people who have a different ethnicity, religion, language, or culture than that of the majority of people in the place where they live.

Voter Turnout

Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. “Eligible voters” are defined differently in different countries, and the term should not be confused with the total adult population. After increasing for many decades, there has been a trend of decreasing voter turnout in most established democracies since the 1960s . In general, low turnout may be due to disenchantment, indifference, or contentment. Low turnout is often considered to be undesirable, and there is much debate over the factors that affect turnout and how to increase it. In spite of significant study devoted to the issue, scholars are divided on reasons for the decline. The causes of decreasing turnout have been attributed to a wide array of economic, demographic, cultural, technological, and institutional factors. There have been many efforts to increase turnout and encourage voting.

Voter turnout over time for five countries

Change in voter turnout over time for five selected countries.

In each nation, some parts of society are more likely to vote than others. In high-turnout nations, these differences tend to be limited: as turnout approaches 90 percent, it becomes difficult to find differences of much significance between voters and nonvoters. In low turnout nations, however, the differences between voters and non-voters can be quite marked. Socioeconomic factors significantly affect whether or not individuals voting tendencies. The most important socioeconomic factor in voter turnout is education. The more educated a person is, the more likely he or she is to vote, even when controlling for other factors such as income and class that are closely associated with education level .

Voter Turnout by Educational Attainment –2008 Presidential Election

Educational attainment, an indicator of social class, can predict one’s level of political participation. Those with high educational attainment are more likely to vote in elections than those with little education.

Gender, Age, Ethnicity, Race, Income

There is some debate over the effects of ethnicity, race, and gender on voter turnout. While women are generally as likely as men to vote in developed countries, women are underrepresented in political positions. Women make up a very small percentage of elected officials, both at local and national levels. In the U.S., for instance, in the 109^th Congress (2005-2007) there were only 14 female Senators (out of 100) and 70 Congressional Representatives (out of 435).

Age is another crucial factor determining voter turnout. Young people are much less likely to vote than are older people, and they are less likely to be politicians. The lower voting rates of young people in the U.S. help explain why things like Medicare and Social Security in the U.S. are facing looming crises: the elderly will retain many of the benefits of these programs and are unwilling to allow them to be changed even though young people will be the ones to suffer the consequences of these crises.

Generally, racial and ethnic minorities are less likely to vote in elections and are also underrepresented in political positions. If blacks were represented in proportion to their numbers in the U.S., there should be 12 Senators and 52 Members of the House. In 2009, there was 1 black Senator (Roland Burris) and 39 Members of the House. In 2010, the number in the House increased slightly to 41 (7.8 percent), but remained at just 1 percent of the Senate.

Political power is also stratified through income and education. Wealthier and more educated people are more likely to vote. Additionally, wealthier and more educated people are more likely to hold political positions. In the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election, the candidates, John Kerry, and George W. Bush, were both Yale University alumni. John Kerry was a lawyer and George W. Bush had an MBA from Harvard. Both were white, worth millions of dollars, and came from families involved in politics.

15.5.4: Lobbyists and Special Interest Groups

Lobbying describes paid activity in which special interest groups argue for specific legislation in decision-making bodies.

Learning Objective

Analyze the significance of lobbying according to its multiple instantiations

Key Points

• Lobbying in the United States describes paid activity in which special interests hire well-connected, professional advocates, often lawyers.
• Lobbying happens at every level of government, including federal, state, county, municipal, and local governments.
• A lobbyist, according to the legal sense of the word, is a professional, often a lawyer.
• Pro bono clients offer activities like fundraisers and awards ceremonies on neutral territory to meet and socialize with local legislators.
• Corporations which lobby actively tend to be few in number, large, and often sell to the government.

Key Terms

corporations

Plural of corporation.

lobbyist

A person remunerated to persuade (to lobby) politicians to vote in a certain way or otherwise use their office to effect a desired result.

Example

• When people think about lobbying, they often imagine corruption and poor policy results. Lobbying does not always have such deleterious effects. But sometimes it does. According to critics, lobbying can lead to poor policymaking because legislators do not consider policies based on their merits but instead based on their political repercussions. For example, food industry lobbyists and healthcare lobbyists recently clashed over the issue of school lunches. A group supported by the United States Department of Agriculture proposed healthier lunches as a way to combat childhood obesity by limiting the number of potatoes served, limiting salty foods, and adding more fresh vegetables. This group was countered by a strong food lobby backed by Coca-Cola, Del Monte, and makers of frozen pizza. The food lobbyists succeeded in blocking the proposed reforms, even writing rules suggesting that the tomato paste on a pizza qualified as a vegetable. According to critics, this case appeared to be an example where business interests won out over health concerns.

Lobbying in the United States describes paid activity in which special interests hire well-connected professional advocates, often lawyers, to argue for specific legislation in decision-making bodies such as the United States Congress. It is a highly controversial phenomenon, often seen in a negative light by journalists and the American public, and frequently misunderstood. The current pattern suggests much lobbying is done by corporations although a wide variety of coalitions representing diverse groups are possible. Lobbying happens at every level of government, including federal, state, county, municipal, and even local governments.

Lobbyists are intermediaries between client organizations and lawmakers: They explain to legislators what their organizations want, and they explain to their clients what obstacles elected officials face. Many lobbyists work in lobbying firms or law firms, some of which retain clients outside of lobbying. Others work for advocacy groups, trade associations, companies, and state and local governments. Lobbyists can also be one type of government official, such as a governor of a state, who presses officials in Washington for specific legislation.

While the bulk of lobbying happens by business and professional interests who hire paid professionals, some lobbyists represent non-profits and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested. Pro bono clients offer activities like fundraisers and awards ceremonies on neutral territory to meet and socialize with local legislators.

Corporations which lobby actively tend to be large corporations, few in number, and often they sell to the government. Most corporations do not hire lobbyists. One study found that the actual number of firms which do lobbying regularly is fewer than 300, and that the percent of firms engaged in lobbying was 10 percent from 1998-2006. Corporations considering lobbying run into substantial barriers to entry: Corporations have to research the relevant laws about lobbying, hire lobbying firms, and cultivate influential people and make connections. For example, when an issue regarding a change in immigration policy arose, large corporations that were currently lobbying switched focus somewhat to take account of the new regulatory world, but new corporations—even ones likely to be affected by any possible rulings on immigration—stayed out of the lobbying fray, according to the study.

The Defense Lobby

Defense contractors such as Boeing and Lockheed Martin sell extensively to the government and must, of necessity, engage in lobbying to win contracts.

15.5.5: African Americans as a Political Force

Collectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups.

Learning Objective

Sketch an outline of the general African-American influence on U.S. politics from the mid 1800s to today

Key Points

• African Americans have the highest level of Congressional representation of any minority group in the U.S., though this doesn’t extend to the senate.
• Historically, African Americans were supporters of the Republican Party because it was Republican President Abraham Lincoln who granted freedom to American slaves.
• The African American trend of voting for Democrats can be traced back to the 1930s during the Great Depression, when Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal program provided economic relief for African Americans.
• African Americans tend to be conservative on issues related to the family but progressive on questions of social justice and social spending. They tend to hold far more conservative opinions on abortion, extramarital sex, and raising children out of wedlock than Democrats as a whole.

Key Terms

Republican Party

The Republican Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery activists in 1854, it dominated politics nationally for most of the period 1860-1932. Currently the party’s platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S. political spectrum.

Great Depression

A major economic collapse that lasted from 1929 to 1940 in the US and a similar period in many other countries.

conservative

A person who favors maintenance of the status quo or reversion to some earlier status.

Collectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups, indicated by the highest level of voter registration and participation in elections among these groups in 2004 . African Americans collectively attain higher levels of education than immigrants to the United States. African Americans also have the highest level of Congressional representation of any minority group in the U.S, though this doesn’t extend to the senate .

Voter Turnout by Race, 2008 Presidential Election

This is a chart illustrating voter turnout by race for the 2008 Presidential Election using data from the U.S. Census Bureau.

Senator Roland Burris

Although African Americans have high political participation rates, they are underrepresented in political office. Senator Roland Burris, of Illinois, is currently the only African American senator.

The large majority of African Americans support the Democratic Party. In the 2004 Presidential Election, Democrat John Kerry received 88 percent of the African American vote, compared to 11 percent for Republican George W. Bush. Although there is an African American lobby in foreign policy, it has not had the impact that African American organizations have had in domestic policy.

Historically, African Americans were supporters of the Republican Party because it was Republican President Abraham Lincoln who granted freedom to American slaves; at the time, the Republicans and Democrats represented the sectional interests of the North and South, respectively, rather than any specific ideology—both right and left were represented equally in both parties.

The African American trend of voting for Democrats can be traced back to the 1930s during the Great Depression, when Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal program provided economic relief for African Americans. Roosevelt’s New Deal coalition turned the Democratic Party into an organization of the working class and their liberal allies, regardless of region. The African American vote became even more solidly Democratic when Democratic presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson pushed for civil rights legislation during the 1960s.

African Americans tend to hold far more conservative opinions on abortion, extramarital sex, and raising children out of wedlock than Democrats as a whole. On financial issues, they are in line with Democrats, generally supporting a more progressive tax structure to provide more services and reduce injustice and as well as more government spending on social services.

15.5.6: Hispanics as a Political Force

Hispanics have the ability to be an influential force in politics, a fact that is especially true in areas with high Hispanic populations.

Learning Objective

Explain the nuances within the so-called ”Hispanic vote”

Key Points

• The term Hispanic is used in the United States to refer to people with origins in Spanish-speaking countries, like Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Costa Rica.
• The majority of Hispanics either identify themselves as Democrats or support the Democratic party.
• Due to the homogeneity among Hispanic voters, they have the ability to be an influential force in American politics. This is especially true in areas with high Hispanic populations, and, based on demographic predictions, will continue to be important throughout the 21st century.
• Depending on their ethnicity and background, Hispanics differ on voting trends. For example, Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies. In contrast, Mexican Americans, Puerto Rican Americans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor liberal views.
• The Presidency of George W. Bush had a significant impact on the political leanings of Hispanics and Latinos.
• In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal immigration, and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Hispanics and Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years.

Key Terms

Hispanic

of or relating to a Spanish-speaking people or culture, as in Latin America.

midterm election

an election, held every four years, to elect members of Congress; during midterm elections, the president is not elected

Democratic Party

The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other of which is the Republican Party.

Example

• Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are LULAC, the NCLR, the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy

The term Hispanic, as defined by the Office of Management and Budget, is used in the United States to identify people with origins in Spanish-speaking countries, like Mexico, Peru, Cuba, or Costa Rica.

Hispanic Party Affiliation

Depending on their location and background, Hispanics differ on their political views. While Hispanics have a diversity of views, they disproportionately identify themselves as Democratic and/or support Democratic candidates. Only 23% of Hispanics identify as Republicans. For example, in the 2010 midterm elections, in spite of general Republican victories, 60% of Hispanics voted Democratic, while only 38% voted Republican. In 2008, 67% of Hispanics supported Obama. In 2006, 69% of Hispanic voters supported Democratic candidates in congressional races, while only 30% supported Republican candidates.

Demographic Trends

Due to the homogeneity among Hispanic voters, they have the ability to be an influential force in American politics. This is especially true in areas with high Hispanic populations. Statistics indicate that the American Hispanic population is increasing and will continue to do so steadily over the ensuing decades of the 21^st century . A 2012 study, conducted by the Center for Immigration Studies, projected that in November 2012, Hispanics would comprise 17.2% of the total U.S. population. The same study showed that, in the United States, Hispanics now constitute 15% of adults, 11.2% of adult citizens, and 8.9% of actual voters. In comparison, the same study showed that in 2012, non-Hispanic whites were expected to constitute 73.4% of the national vote. Non-Hispanic blacks were only expected to represent 12.2% of the national vote.

An Immigration Rally in Chicago, 2006

Immigration is an important issue for may Hispanic and Latino voters.

Political Differences in the Hispanic Community

Hispanics are often classified as a unitary voting bloc, but there are differences in political preferences within this community. For example, Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and to support the Republican Party. Mexican Americans, Puerto Rican Americans, and Dominican Americans, on the other hand, tend to favor liberal views and to support the Democratic party. That being said, because the latter groups are far more numerous (Mexican Americans account for 64% of Hispanics in the U.S.) the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with Hispanics overall.

President Clinton’s Latino Appointees, 1998

Hispanics and Latinos made political gains under the Clinton Administration. This 1998 photograph shows President Bill Clinton and his Hispanic and Latino appointees.

15.5.7: The Role of the Media

Media are means of transmitting information, which is important for a democracy in which citizens must make their own informed decisions.

Learning Objective

Give a concrete example of gatekeeping that may have political consequences

Key Points

• In communications, media are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to store and deliver information or data.
• Media of the United States consist of several different types of communications media: television, radio, cinema, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-based Web sites.
• Ninety-nine percent of American households have at least one television, and the majority of households have more than one.
• A central method in which the media influences the U.S. political system is through gatekeeping, a process through which information is filtered for dissemination, be it publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other type of communication.
• The Internet has provided a means for newspapers and other media organizations to deliver news and, significantly, the means to look up old news. Some organizations only make limited amounts of their output available for free and charge for access to the rest.
• The U.S. has three leading weekly newsmagazines: Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report.
• The Internet has provided a means for newspapers and other media organizations to deliver news and, significantly, the means to look up old news. Some organizations only make limited amounts of their output available for free and charge for access to the rest.

Key Terms

Gatekeeping

Gatekeeping is practiced by gatekeepers, people who control access to something, for example, via a city gate. In the late twentieth century, the term came into metaphorical use, referring to individuals who decide whether a given message will be distributed by a mass medium.

media

In communications, media (singular medium) are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to store and deliver information or data.

Example

• Media can influence politics by what they say, but also by what they don’t say. Gatekeeping is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, be it publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other type of communication. Gatekeeping occurs at all levels of the media structure, from a reporter deciding which sources are included in a story to editors deciding which stories are printed or covered, and includes media outlet owners and even advertisers. In 1950, the idea of gatekeeping was officially applied to news. David Manning White looked at the factors an editor takes into consideration when deciding which news will make the paper and which news will not. White contacted an editor, a man called Mr. Gates who was in his mid-40s and had 25 years of experience in journalism. Mr. Gates was the wire editor of a morning newspaper with a circulation of 30,000 in a mid-west city of 100,000. As it happened, he retained all copy (news stories) that he rejected from the paper. After his shift, he made notes on why each story was rejected, assuming he could still remember the reason. White wanted to know whether Mr. Gates’s decisions were objective or whether they were subjective and based on the editor’s own set of experiences, attitudes, and expectations. He found that rejections could be classified in two ways: 1) rejecting based on not being worthy of being reported or 2) rejecting based on duplicate of other reports on the same thing. These considerations fit with what we call news norms today: objective decisions about what is fit to print. However, Mr. Gates also admitted to preferring political news to other types, trying to avoid sensationalism, not liking suicide stories, and preferring stories that were more narrative and did not contain facts or figures. He also admitted that he did not like giving page space to a scandal that had been going on in the Catholic Church at the time. Thus, Mr. Gates was acting as a gatekeeper by making decisions about what sorts of news would receive space in his newspaper.

In communications, media are the storage and transmission channels or tools used to store and deliver information or data. Media are often referred to as synonymous with mass media or news media, but may refer to a single medium used to communicate any data for any purpose. Media of the United States consist of several different types of communications media: television, radio, cinema, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-based Web sites. American media conglomerates tend to be leading global players, generating large revenues, as well as large opposition in many parts of the world.

A central method in which the media influences the U.S. political system is through gatekeeping, a process through which information is filtered for dissemination, be it publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other type of communication. Gatekeeping occurs at all levels of the media structure, from a reporter deciding which sources are included in a story to editors deciding which stories are printed or covered, and includes media outlet owners and even advertisers. This, in turn, determines to a great extent which issues will be important to Americans and on the agendas of their elected officials.

The Internet has provided a means for newspapers and other media organizations to deliver news and, significantly, the means to look up old news. Some organizations only make limited amounts of their output available for free, and charge for access to the rest. Other organizations allow their archives to be freely browsed. It is possible that the latter type obtain more influence, as they are true to the spirit of freedom of information by virtue of making it free. Anyone who has followed external links only to be confronted with a pay-to-view banner might attest that the reputations of organizations that charge is not enhanced by their charging policy, particularly when the same information is available from sources that don’t charge.

15.5.8: The Role of Age

There is a correlation between age and political activity/organization.

Learning Objective

Explain the ways in which age can influence political participation

Key Points

• Age influences rates of political participation, and it is a determining factor in the issues people care about.
• Older people tend to be more politically active and better organized. They are seen as being more influential in politics.
• Young people are less likely to vote than older people.
• The 2008 election of President Obama illustrated that young people can be organized and mobilized. Obama’s ability to mobilize young people was seen as a crucial factor in his electoral success.

Key Terms

AARP

AARP, formally the American Association of Retired Persons, is a United States-based non-governmental organization and interest group, founded in 1958 by Ethel Percy Andrus, PhD, a retired educator from California. The organization is based in Washington, D.C. According to its mission statement, it is “a nonprofit, nonpartisan membership organization for people age 50 and over … dedicated to enhancing quality of life for all as we age, [providing] a wide range of unique benefits, special products, and services for our members. “

new media

Interactive digital media, such as the Internet, as opposed to traditional media such as print and television.

Example

• Older people are well organized by advocacy groups such as the AARP, which lobby on their behalf.

Age and Politics

Age is an important factor in U.S. politics because there is a correlation between age and rates of political participation and because it is a determining factor in the issues people care about.

Young people are much less likely to vote than are older people and are less likely to be politicians. The lower voting rates of young people in the U.S. help explain why things like Medicare and Social Security in the U.S. are facing looming crises—the elderly will retain many of the benefits of these programs and are unwilling to allow them to be changed even though young people will be the ones to suffer the consequences of these crises. Older people are also more organized, through organizations like the AARP, and they are more likely to vote as a block on issues that affect them directly. As a result, older individuals in the U.S. are seen as having more political power than younger people.

Mobilization According to Age

Given that there is a correlation between age and the issues relevant to those populations, some organizations have capitalized on these relationships in order to push political agendas.

Mobilizing the Elderly

The AARP, formerly the American Association of Retired Persons, is a United States-based, non-governmental organization and interest group, founded in 1958. Its mission is to improve the quality of life for retired people and people over the age of 50. On the one hand, AARP pursues its mission by providing services such as tax preparation help, discounts, and insurance for its members. On the other hand, AARP pursues its mission by mobilizing its immense resource base to lobby for policy change. AARP claims around 38 million members, making it one of the largest membership organizations in the United States. Its total revenue in 2006 was approximately $1 billion, of which $23 million was spent on lobbying. The AARP lobbies for issues that matter to older adults, such as health care and social security.

Mobilizing the Youth

Although they tend to be less organized and participate in lower numbers, young people also influence U.S. politics. Barack Obama was particularly noted for his popularity among young people. Obama’s campaign used the Internet to rally supporters and make his policies known, and the campaign’s use of the Internet targeted 18- to 29-year-olds, the age group most reliant on new media for political information. Obama’s campaign managers understood younger voters tended to ignore politicians because politicians tended to ignore issues which most concerned them. Politicians such as Obama focus on issues that are relevant to certain age groups in order to mobilize support. Obama’s ability to focus on these issues and reach out to young people is seen as one of the reasons for his success in the 2008 presidential election .

Young Obama Supporters, 2008

Barack Obama’s 2008 Presidential campaign was notable for attracting large numbers of young voters.

15.6: War and Terrorism

15.6.1: War

War is an organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict that is carried on between states, nations, or other parties.

Learning Objective

Recall three possible outcomes of a civil war

Key Points

• War entails confrontation with weapons, military technology, or equipment used by armed forces who employ military tactics and operational art within the broad categories of military strategy and military logistics.
• Warfare refers to the set of techniques used by a group to carry out war.
• Nuclear warfare is warfare in which nuclear weapons are the primary method of coercing the capitulation of the other side, as opposed to the supporting role nuclear weaponry might take in a more conventional war.
• Where evenly matched adversaries decide that the conflict has resulted in a stalemate, they may cease hostilities to avoid further loss of life and property.
• Negotiations between parties involved at the end of a war often result in a treaty.
• Some hostilities, such as insurgency or civil war, may persist for long periods of time with only a low level of military activity.
• Negotiations between parties involved at the end of a war often result in a treaty.
• Some hostilities, such as insurgency or civil war, may persist for long periods of time with only a low level of military activity.

Key Terms

treaty

A binding agreement under international law concluded by subjects of international law, namely states and international organizations.

civil war

A war fought between factions of the inhabitants of a single country, or the citizens of a single republic.

insurgency

rebellion; revolt; the state of being insurgent

Example

• Negotiations between parties involved at the end of a war often result in a treaty, such as the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, which ended the First World War.

War is an organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict that is carried on between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality. War should be understood as an actual, intentional, and widespread armed conflict between political communities, and it is defined as a form of political violence.

War entails confrontation with weapons, military technology, or equipment used by armed forces who employ military tactics and operational art within the broad categories of military strategy and military logistics. War studies by military theorists have sought to identify the philosophy of war and to reduce it to a military science. Conventional warfare is an attempt to reduce an opponent’s military capability through open battle. Conventional war is declared between existing states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used, or they only see limited deployment in support of conventional military goals and maneuvers. Nuclear warfare is warfare in which nuclear weapons are the primary method of coercing the capitulation of the other side, as opposed to the supporting role nuclear weaponry might take in a more conventional war.

The political and economic circumstances of peace following a war are highly situational—post-war political and economic realities can not be forecasted. When evenly adversaries decide that a conflict has resulted in a stalemate, they may cease hostilities to avoid further loss of life and property. They may decide to restore the pre-war territorial boundaries, redraw boundaries at the line of military control, or negotiate to keep or exchange captured territory. Negotiations between parties involved at the end of a war often result in treaties, such as the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, which ended the First World War.

Some hostilities, such as insurgency or civil war, may persist for long periods of time with a low level of military activity. In some cases a treaty is never reached, but fighting may trail off and eventually stop after the political demands of the belligerent groups have been reconciled, a political settlement has been negotiated, the combatants are gradually killed or decide the conflict is futile, or the belligerents cease active military engagement but still threaten each other.

Battle of Ravena (1512)

The Battle of Ravenna, in which France defeated the Spaniards on Easter Sunday in 1512

15.6.2: Terrorism

Terrorism is an act of violence intended to create fear, which is then leveraged in order to achieve goals.

Learning Objective

Criticize an instance in history in which the term ”terrorist” or ”terrorism” has been misused to describe a religious group, government, or revolutionary action, using the definition of terrorism in this text

Key Points

• Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations for furthering their objectives.
• An abiding characteristic of terrorism is indiscriminate use of violence against noncombatants to gain publicity for an individual, group or cause.
• The perpetrators of acts of terrorism can be individuals, groups or states.
• Religious terrorism is terrorism performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically rooted in faith-based tenets.
• The terms “terrorism” and “terrorist” (someone who engages in terrorism) carry strong negative connotations.

Key Terms

terrorism

The deliberate commission of an act of violence to create an emotional response through the suffering of the victims in the furtherance of a political or social agenda.

perpetrator

One who perpetrates; especially, one who commits an offense or crime.

noncombatant

A non-fighting member of the armed forces

Example

• Some terrorist groups may see themselves as first and foremost fighting for liberation, a struggle so important that they argue it justifies unpalatable methods. For example, the ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna) has evolved from a group promoting traditional Basque culture to a paramilitary group with the goal of gaining independence for the Greater Basque Country. ETA is the main organization of the Basque National Liberation Movement and is the most important participant in the Basque conflict. Since 1968, ETA has been held responsible for killing 829 individuals, injuring thousands, and undertaking dozens of kidnappings. The group is proscribed as a terrorist organization by Spanish, British and French authorities, the European Union as a whole, and the United States.

Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. Although the term lacks a universal definition, common definitions of terrorism refer to violent acts intended to create fear (terror). These acts are perpetrated for a religious, political, or ideological goal, and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians).

Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations for furthering their objectives. It has been practiced by right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments. An abiding characteristic is the indiscriminate use of violence against noncombatants to gain publicity for a group, cause or individual. Therefore, the power of terrorism comes from its ability to leverage human fear to help achieve these goals.

Terrorists

The terms “terrorism” and “terrorist” carry strong negative connotations. These terms are often used as political labels to condemn such violence as immoral, indiscriminate, or unjustified or to condemn an entire segment of a population. However, some groups, when involved in a liberation struggle, have been called terrorists by the Western governments or media. In some liberation struggles, these same persons can become the leaders or statesman of these liberated nations . Thus, the perpetrators of terrorism can widely vary; terrorists can be individuals, groups or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war.

A pro-ETA mural in Durango, Biscay

The ETA is considered a terrorist organization by most governments, but proclaims its own mission to be liberation.

Religious Terrorism

Religious terrorism is performed by groups or individuals, the motivation of which is typically rooted in faith-based tenets. Terrorist acts throughout the centuries have been performed on religious grounds with the hope to either spread or enforce a system of belief, viewpoint or opinion. Religious terrorism does not in itself necessarily define a specific religious standpoint or view, but instead usually defines an individual or group interpretation of that belief system’s teachings.

Terrorist Bomb Attack

A view of damages to the U.S. Embassy in Beirut caused by a terrorist bomb attack, April 1983

15.6.3: Peace

Peace is a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violent conflict or war.

Learning Objective

Explain the difference between principled pacifism and pragmatic pacifism, and what they share in common

Key Points

• Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace also suggests the existence of healthy interpersonal or international relationships, prosperity in matters of social or economic welfare, the establishment of equality, and a working political order that serves the true interests of all.
• A peace movement is a social movement seeking to achieve ideals like the ending of a particular war.
• Principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong.
• Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and inter-personal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found.

Key Terms

pragmatic pacifism

Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found.

principled pacifism

Principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong.

international relations

International relations (I.R.) is the study of relationships between countries, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs).

Example

• The highest honor awarded to a peace maker is the Nobel Prize in Peace, awarded since 1901 by the Norwegian Nobel Committee. It is awarded annually to internationally notable persons following the prize’s creation in the will of Alfred Nobel. Other honorary awards around the world include the Gandhi Peace Prize and the Student Peace Prize.

Peace is a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violent conflict or war. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace also suggests the existence of healthy or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships, prosperity in matters of social or economic welfare, the establishment of equality, and a working political order that serves the true interests of all. In international relations, peacetime is not only the absence of war or conflict, but also the presence of cultural and economic understanding.

Peace Movements

A peace movement is a social movement seeking to achieve ideals like the ending of a particular war (or all wars), while also minimizing inter-human violence with the goal of achieving world peace. Means to achieve these ends usually include advocacy, non-violent resistance, diplomacy, boycotts, moral purchasing, supporting anti-war political candidates, demonstrations, lobbying to create legislation, and pacifism.

Pacifism

Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes or gaining advantage. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from the belief that international disputes should be peacefully resolved. Other views of pacifism include:

• calls for abolition of the institutions of the military and war
• opposition to any organization of society through governmental force (anarchist or libertarian pacifism)
• rejection of physical violence to obtain political, economic or social goals
• opposition to violence under any circumstance, including defense of self and others

Pacifism may be based on moral principles or pragmatism. Principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and inter-personal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found. Pacifists in general reject theories of a “just war. “

Peace Sign

The peace sign, one of several symbols used to represent peace