11.3: Using Language Effectively

11.3.1: Choosing Clear Words and Phrasing

Learning Objective

Analyze your speech topic until you fully understand the question and key terms

Key Points

• How well do you know your topic? Make sure you fully understand everything that goes into your topic as you begin to craft the specific wording of your speech.
• Start by delimiting the question, that is, fully parsing out exactly what question you’re answering by giving your speech. Even if you don’t think there is a specific question, your speech topic exists for some purpose. What purpose does your speech fulfill?
• From there, define your key terms of your speech.

Key Terms

delimit

To mark or fix the limits of.

baseline

A datum used as the basis for calculation or for comparison.

dissect

To analyze an idea in detail by separating it into its parts.

Choosing Clear Words and Phrasing

Using Clear Words

It’s important to convey your message to the audience in the clearest way possible.

President Ronald Reagan gives a campaign speech.

How Well Do You Fully Understand Your Topic?

You know that you have to write a speech, and you may or may not have been given a specific topic about which to write. Easy as pie, right? Hold on there–take a step back for a moment and ask yourself: how well do you fully understand your topic? It’s important to take that step back and look at your speech from a distanced perspective.

Looking at your speech from a distance allows you to dissect exactly how you can begin to tackle the specific wording of your speech. You want to make sure that your speech is easy to understand and follow, so it’s imperative to choose clear words and phrasing. When you think of your speech in delimiting the question and defining key terms, you have a great starting point for how to begin selecting the clearest words and phrasing.

Delimit the Question

What question does your speech address? You might be thinking, “Wait a minute. My speech isn’t even answering a question. I’m just supposed to talk about a business plan I’ve made for a fake company for an assignment in my entrepreneurship class. “

Here’s the thing: your speech actually is answering a question, that question being, “Why should you invest in my business? ” (however fake that business may be).

The importance of identifying the broader question to which your speech will speak not only helps your audience understand your point, but it pinpoints exactly how you need to tailor your speech to your audience. Essentially, when you take the steps to delimit your question (your speech’s purpose), you help to outline exactly how your audience can follow your line of reasoning.

When you delimit the question, first think about the purpose of your speech. This will usually point you in the direction of the broader question. From there, list step-by-step how you plan to address that question. Set the parameters for your rhetoric for your audience.

Define Key Terms

Even though your speech could be about something that is otherwise common knowledge to your audience, it is helpful to also define key terms for them as you go along in your speech. Even though you may have outlined your plan of attack by delimiting the question, it also helps to explain exactly what you’re talking about to your audience. When you establish your key terms by defining them for your audience, you set a baseline standard of understanding for your audience, thus eliminating any confusion.

When you delimited your question, were there any key words used in that question? Define those terms as necessary. You’ll want to source your definitions appropriately by looking up those key terms from reliable sources. In doing so, you indicate to your audience that not only do you fully understand the ways in which to approach your argument, but that you understand your topic.

Do be careful: you don’t want to “dumb down” your speech by defining every single key term throughout your speech. Make sure you only highlight and define those words that are necessary for establishing a foundation of your speech topic.

11.3.2: Choosing Vivid Words

Learning Objective

Use creative, vivid language in your speech to combat monotony

Key Points

• Descriptive language in your speech builds interest and allows you to immerse your audience in a sensory experience.
• Use simile and metaphor as a way to add descriptive language and wording into your speech. Make your points more compelling by painting pictures with words in the minds of your audience members.
• Tell your audience exactly how you want them to digest the information in your speech by using a variety of process words.

Key Terms

monotony

Tedium as a result of repetition or a lack of variety.

simile

A figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another, in the case of English generally using like or as.

metaphor

The use of a word or phrase to refer to something that it isn’t, invoking a direct similarity between the word or phrase used and the thing described, but without the words like or as, which would imply a simile.

Example

• Here is a list of fifty of the most commonly used process words to add interest and vivid depth to your speech: Account, Analyze, Argue, Assess, Calculate, Characterize, Classify, Comment, Compare, Consider, Contrast, Criticize, Deduce, Define, Demonstrate, Describe, Determine, Differentiate, Discuss, Distinguish, Elaborate, Elucidate, Enumerate, Estimate, Evaluate, Examine, Explain, Express, Identify, Illustrate, Indicate, Infer, Interpret, Justify, List, Mention, Name, Outline, Prove, Quantify, Relate, Review, Show, Speculate, State, Substantiate, Suggest, Summarize, Trace, Verify.

Choose Vivid Language and Wording

William Shakespeare

When lacking vivid words, Shakespeare created his own. He invented over 1,700 words and phrases in his body of works.

Conquer Monotony

“The monotonous speaker not only drones along in the same volume and pitch of tone but uses always the same emphasis, the same speed, the same thoughts—or dispenses with thought altogether. Monotony: the cardinal and most common sin of the public speaker. ” – J. Berg Esenwein, The Art of Public Speaking

The quickest way to lose your audience is to be boring. Avoid the “sin of monotony,” as Esenwein puts it, by using vivid language and imagery to build interest in your speech.

Writing Descriptively

Think of your favorite food or meal, or perhaps your favorite place to visit. What does it smell like? Look like? Taste like? What sounds are characteristic of your favorite vacation spot? When you use vivid, descriptive language in your speech, you immerse your audience in a sensory experience that transports them from their seats and into the experience you craft with your words.

Writing descriptively is more than just using “pretty” language to dress up your speech; in fact, you want to be careful that your speech doesn’t come across as poetry. Using descriptive language can actually help get your points across more pointedly to your audience than by simply presenting hard facts and data. Descriptive language engages your audience’s imagination, which holds their attention and adds both interest and complexity to your speech.

There are a variety of ways to add descriptive language to your speech, which are described below.

Similes and Metaphors

Two of the easiest techniques to add descriptive wording to your speech are simile and metaphor. They essentially achieve the same goal: comparing one thing to another in likeness. In a simile, the comparison is made by using the words “like” or “as. ” Metaphors, on the other hand, usually compare things directly by using the verb “to be. ” These comparisons help to paint a picture in the minds of your audience. For speechwriters, metaphor and simile are like the brushstrokes of an artist, the notes of a melody, or the choreography of a dance — they demonstrate an artistry with language.

These comparisons may be alike or dissimilar. The use of opposing ideas and imagery can illustrate bolder points while similar comparisons bolster the strength of an idea or image.

Billy Collins, former U.S. Poet Laureate, is a master of metaphor. Take, for example, his poem, Litany:

You are the bread and the knife, the crystal goblet and the wine. You are the dew on the morning grass and the burning wheel of the sun. You are the white apron of the baker, and the marsh birds suddenly in flight. However, you are not the wind in the orchard, the plums on the counter, or the house of cards. And you are certainly not the pine-scented air. There is just no way that you are the pine-scented air. It is possible that you are the fish under the bridge, maybe even the pigeon on the general’s head, but you are not even close to being the field of cornflowers at dusk. And a quick look in the mirror will show that you are neither the boots in the corner nor the boat asleep in its boathouse. It might interest you to know, speaking of the plentiful imagery of the world, that I am the sound of rain on the roof. I also happen to be the shooting star, the evening paper blowing down an alley and the basket of chestnuts on the kitchen table. I am also the moon in the trees and the blind woman’s tea cup. But don’t worry, I’m not the bread and the knife. You are still the bread and the knife. You will always be the bread and the knife, not to mention the crystal goblet and–somehow–the wine.

Process Words

Process words tell someone how to process a set of information. In a speech, it’s important to vary your vocabulary so that you don’t end up repeating yourself. There are several process words that get at the basic six ways of processing information: comparing, criticizing, describing, discussing, evaluating, and explaining. By using synonyms of these words as you craft your speech, you not only tell your audience how to process the information you’re presenting, you also build interest by using a varied vocabulary.

11.3.3: Choosing Appropriate Words

Learning Objective

Choose appropriate words that can be used to section your speech

Key Points

• Section your speech into parts arranged in a logical order, with each section having a specific focus or purpose.
• Transition between sections with phrases and words that connect your ideas.
• Avoid weasel phrases in order to keep your speech credible and authoritative.

Key Term

weasel phrases

Phrases that often precede statements and that lack substantive quality.

Choosing Appropriate Words

Appropriate Words

When choosing the appropriate words for your speech, it helps to fully understand the context of your speech, including the audience and venue.

A valedictorian gives his speech.

The Style and Tone of Speaking

Consider for a few minutes exactly where, when, and how you will be giving your speech. Consider the tone and style of your speech. From there, think about how you will structure your speech, given these various contexts. Thinking about these parameters can give you an idea of the most appropriate language to use in the wording of your speech.

Sectioning Your Speech

As you outline your argument, you will want to break your speech into sections. A speech consists, broadly, of an Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. However, as you begin to highlight your thesis and specific supporting points and examples, you will create additional sections to your speech. This is particularly helpful if you have a long speech because sectioning makes the information easier for your audience to process.

Each section of your speech should have a specific purpose or focus. As you move from one section to the next, you will want to make sure you transition smoothly between each section.

Useful Phrases for Transitions and Sectioning Your Ideas

• Generalizing: as a general rule, as a rule, in general, generally, normally, on the whole, usually
• Explaining: in other words, that is, this means that
• Express likelihood: it is certain that, there is no doubt that, I am confident that, certainly, definitely, clearly, undoubtedly, presumably, will, is, should, it is probable that, it is likely that, probably, can, may, it is possible that, could, might, might possibly, possibly, perhaps
• Express doubt: it is doubtful that, maybe, is improbable, is unlikely, it is uncertain, impossible, cannot, can’t, will not, is not
• Draw attention: it is worth noting that, it should be emphasized that, it should be highlighted that, it should be underlined that, in particular, especially, mainly, chiefly, mostly, it should be pointed out that, it should be noted that, it should be remembered that, it is worth stressing that, is vital, is crucial
• Contrasting two points: however, but, in spite of, despite, in spite of the fact that, despite the fact that, nevertheless, nonetheless, instead, conversely, on the contrary, by contrast, whereas, while, whilst, although, even though, on the one hand, on the other hand, in contrast, in comparison with, but, yet, alternatively, the former, the latter, respectively, all the same, there are two possibilities, alternatively, the one, the other, either, or, neither, nor, in addition, no only, but also, worse still, better still, equally, likewise, similarly, correspondingly, in the same way, another possibility, in a similar vein, as well as, furthermore, moreover, also, although, again, what is more, besides, too, as well as
• Giving examples or introducing illustrations: for example, for instance, to name an example, to give an example, is well illustrated by, a case point is, such as, such, one of which, illustrates, is an example of this, is shown by, is exemplified by, is illustrated by, (something) is, means, describes, is defined as, is used, is concerned with, deals with, relates to, involves, signifies, consist of
• Stating consequences: so, therefore, as a consequence, as a result, now, consequently, because of, thus, for this reason, then, this is why, accordingly, hence, given this, with reference to, given, on this basis, is caused by, causes, due to, has the effect, affects, the reason for, because of this, if, then, results in, leads to, produces, owing to, through, as, since, because
• Summarizing: to sum up, in summary, to summarize, in brief, altogether, overall, I conclude, I therefore conclude, reached the conclusion that, it is concluded, therefore, for this reason, then, thus, in conclusion, to bring it all together
• Qualifying frequency: never, rarely, sometimes, usually, often, always, generally, on the whole, frequently, occasionally, hardly ever, seldom
• Qualifying results: under no circumstances, mainly, generally, predominantly, usually, the majority, most of, almost all, a number of, may be, some, a few, a little, fairly, very, quite, rather, almost
• Qualifying change: no, minimal, slight, small, slow, gradual, steady, marked, large, dramatic, complete, steep, sharp, rapid, sudden (rise, increase, fluctuation, decrease, decline, reduction, fall, drop, upward trend, downward trend, peak, plateau, level off)

Avoid Weasel Phrases

Weasel phrases are those that make a lot of promise but do not follow through on the delivery. These trigger phrases often precede statements that lack much substantive quality. These terms are particularly important to avoid so as not to invalidate the credibility of your argument. Here is a list of common weasel phrases:

• allegedly
• arguably
• as opposed to most
• considered by many
• contrary to many
• critics/critics say that
• it could be argued that
• it has been suggested/stated/said/noticed
• it is widely believed/generally claimed
• many people say
• many scientists argue that
• research has shown
• researchers argue that
• serious scholars say that
• social science says/believes that
• some historians argue
• the scientific community
• this is widely considered to be/regarded as

11.3.4: Matching Personal Style

Learning Objective

Create your own unique voice based on the specific context of your speech

Key Points

• Your voice is ultimately a reflection of who you are as a person and influences how your audience both perceives and receives you as speaker. Adapt your voice to your audience’s needs, goals, and expectations.
• Consider your role in relation to the audience. Why are you there to speak to them? What makes you the subject matter expert?
• Don’t forget to think about the formality and venue of your speech, as well as any relevant cultural contexts that may come into play.
• Your attitude speaks volumes to your audience. Make sure your attitude is appropriate to all the factors of your speech: topic, audience, and venue. Be aware that subconscious non-verbal cues can betray how you really feel.
• Don’t be afraid to get creative and let your speech reflect your unique personality.

Key Term

pandering

The act of expressing one’s views in accordance with the likes of a group to which one is attempting to appeal. The term is most notably associated with politics. In pandering, the views one is verbally expressing are merely for the purpose of drawing support and votes and do not necessarily reflect one’s personal values.

Example

• Steve Jobs, the late CEO of Apple, Inc., famously wore a black turtleneck to Apple’s annual Worldwide Developers Conference each year. Despite this being Apple’s biggest moment in the technology world spotlight, Jobs’ black turtleneck shirt had become his signature trademark, a reflection of his personal style. Even as Apple unveiled some of their most game-changing products for the future of personal computing, Jobs never compromised his personal sense of style. It matched well with his conversational manner and tone. In many ways, Jobs was able to show that the Apple brand was both flexible and approachable and could be as casual or as powerful as needed, for both the home user and the power user.

Matching Personal Style

When writing a speech, it’s important to consider the complete context in which you plan to speak. From audience, formality, topic, and venue, each of these factor in how you deliver your speech. Your words, phrases, lines of reasoning, as well as the gestures and mannerisms you might use, will influence your personal speaking style.

Your Own Style

Your speech is a reflection of who you are. Be sure to add your own personal style.

Senator Dan Quayle gives a speech in 1984.

Define Your Voice

As you craft your speech, you will naturally begin to adopt a tone and style as you write. Your personal style and tone is what’s known as your voice. Your voice is what makes your writing and speeches unique from those of others. Developing your voice, in particular honing what works for you and what you like, is something that develops over time.

That said, there are other factors that shape your voice. Your voice should adapt to your speech as much as your speech is guided by your voice. Here are six factors to which you must consider as you develop your voice in your speech:

Audience

Who will be present at your speech? Who will be listening to what you have to say? As you consider your audience, think of what their needs, goals, and expectations are of your speech. Adapt your tone appropriately to your audience.

Formality

Are you presenting at an academic conference? Or are you giving the first toast speech at your best friend’s wedding? Consider the specific occasion, venue, and formality of your speech to make sure you’re using the most appropriate phrasing, language, and wording. Formality will also dictate how you need to dress and appear before your audience.

Your Role in Relation to Your Audience

Why are you there? What makes you the subject matter expert? As much as you’re analyzing your audience, the audience is doing the same of you. Your audience will have expectations and assumptions about you, so it’s helpful to consider them before you ever step foot on stage so that you can adapt and tailor your style accordingly.

Attitude

It’s not just what you say, but how you say it. Your attitude will speak volumes to your audience, not only informing them about you as a person, but either bolstering or eroding your credibility as speaker. Also, be aware that non-verbal cues, such as hand gestures, body stance, and posture can subconsciously betray your real attitude to your audience members, so always be mindful of your physical presence when speaking. You don’t need to be chipper and cheerful for every speech, but your attitude should reflect the other factors influencing your speech.

Cultural Context

Just as when you were analyzing your audience, consider the cultural context of where and to whom you’re speaking. Use your commonalities with the cultural context of your speech venue and audience to build bridges of understanding with your audience. However, don’t fall victim to pandering where you merely say things that reflect the overall needs and expectations of your audience without actually believing in them. Be authentic.

Your Own Creativity

At its heart, your voice is a reflection of you as a person. Let your creativity and the authenticity of your own words and experiences be the vehicle of your voice, guided by your gut. Over time, you’ll know what sounds good and what works well in your speeches.

Incorporate these best practices into your speeches so that they become second nature. It is also helpful to find volunteer readers for your drafts. Having a second reader or mock audience can help you identify areas that can be improved or emphasized, further honing your skills and personal style as a speech writer.

What’s your personal style?

Don’t be afraid to let your personal style come through in your speech. Steve Jobs does it well here with his signature black turtleneck.

11.4: Deploying Style Effectively

11.4.1: Alliteration

Alliteration is a stylistic device whereby a series of words begin with the same consonant sound, which can help your audience’s listening.

Learning Objective

Explain why public speakers use alliteration in public speaking

Key Points

• Phrases like “busy as a bee,” “drop dead gorgeous,” “friends and family” are all examples of alliteration.
• Alliteration adds a textural complexity to your speech that makes your words more engaging.
• Take a creative writing or poetic mindset to approach adding alliteration to your speech.

Key Term

alliteration

The repetition of consonants at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals.

Alliteration

The game of Tic-Tac-Toe is a perfect example of alliteration. Each word in the game’s name begins with the letter “T.”

Alliteration: What Is It?

When you use the same repetitive sound at the beginning of a series of words or phrases, you are using alliteration. Typically, this means a string of words beginning with the same consonant or syllabic sound. While alliteration doesn’t serve much rhetorical purpose, you do make your case more compelling by using a beautiful form of expression and language.

Famous Alliteration in Speech

“I see also the dull, drilled, docile, brutish masses of the Hun soldiery plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts.” –Winston Churchill on the German invasion of Russia

“To those people in the huts and villages of half the globe struggling to break the bonds of mass misery, we pledge our best efforts to help them help themselves, for whatever period is required–not because the communists may be doing it, not because we seek their votes, but because it is right. ” –John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address

“Veni, vidi, vici. ” –Julius Caesar

Why Use It?

As mentioned, it won’t boost the efficacy of your argument but it will make it sound better. Alliteration adds a textural complexity to your speech that makes your words more engaging. When your speech is more engaging, your audience is more apt to pay attention and remain engaged with your words.

How to Use Alliteration

As you craft your speech, try to put on your poet’s cap. Alliteration is a technique often found in poetry, so take the time to get creative with the words and phrasing of your speech. Look for sentences that could use a little “oomph” and try playing around with alliterative words and phrases to make your words sparkle.

11.4.2: Antithesis

Anthesis adds stylistic texture to your speech through the presentation of contrasting ideas and an opposite point of view.

Learning Objective

Give examples of antithesis in public speaking

Key Points

• Contrast helps fully illustrate a concept by giving your audience a 360 degree understanding of your idea, claim, or argument.
• Giving your audience a contrast of the thesis with an opposite point of view aims them in the direction of understanding the concept; you can then use your speech to more fully flesh out that idea.
• If you’re having a hard time figuring out how to use antithesis in your speech, consider the opposing viewpoint of your main argument. From there, consider all the points of contrast that could be made from your main antithetical point.

Key Term

antithesis

A device by which two contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in parallel form.

Antithesis

Antithesis is a counter-proposition that denotes a direct contrast to the original proposition. Antithesis is a way to express contrast through direct opposites. Light is the antithesis of dark, heaven is the antithesis of hell, and some would even say that cats are the antithesis of dogs.

Antithesis

Anthesis is a way of presenting contrast. Black is the antithesis of white and vice-versa.

Antithesis is also a way to describe contrasting ideas or themes: genocide is the antithesis of world peace, for example.

Why it is Used

Contrast is a very important stylistic choice to fully illustrate a concept. By explaining a concept, idea or argument with its opposite, you give your audience a 360 degree understanding of your point. Using something’s opposite helps to bolster the definition about what you’re speaking. By giving your audience a contrast with the opposite point of view, they have a better idea of the concept; if they do not, you can clarify further. Antithesis is a great way to lead into exactly how you want to portray an idea or argument.

How to Use Antithesis

Antithesis makes for a great way to set up your argument or idea by showing your audience the opposite. From there, you can then specifically tailor your argument to fill the void left when describing its opposite. If you are having a hard time trying to decide how to use antithesis effectively, consider the main point you are trying to make with your speech. What would the opposing point be? Use that as a springboard to begin pinning down points of contrast to give your speech stylistic texture.

11.4.3: Hyperbole

Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration or overstatement to get your point across to your audience.

Learning Objective

State how hyperbole can be used as a stylistic tool in speech

Key Points

• When hearing a hyperbole, ask yourself: is this claim really true?
• While you want to avoid generalizations in your speech as much as possible, there are advantages to using hyperbole since it can be used as an effective persuasive device.
• Don’t rely on hyperbole alone to substantiate your claims; instead, use it as a strategic stylistic choice to enliven your words and infuse them with persuasive meaning.

Key Term

hyperbole

Extreme exaggeration or overstatement; especially as a literary or rhetorical device.

Hyberbole

Hyperbole is a form of exaggeration. Do you really think these are THE most touching records EVER made?

Hyperbole: What Is It?

Hyperbole comes from the Greek word meaning exaggeration and that is exactly what it is. Often, you can identify hyperbolic claims by certain trigger words such as “most,” “best,” or “worst. ” But not all hyperbole is that clear cut. The question you must ask upon hearing a hyperbolic statement is whether or not it’s actually a true statement. Hyperbole would have you believe so, and that’s what makes it an effective and strategic stylistic choice.

Why Use It?

While you want to avoid generalizations in your speech as much as possible, there are advantages to using hyperbole. They can be used like any other descriptive form of language to help paint a more vivid picture for your audience. Hyperbole also serves as a form of persuasion, to really make your case to an audience. The use of exaggeration or overstatement can make your speech that much more persuasive.

How to Use Hyperbole

Like any stylistic choice, be strategic. You don’t want your speech to consist solely of hyperbole as your audience will quickly begin to see that your argument has no basis. You can also use it to be more relatable to your audience or to simply communicate your point with a more vivid, engaging style. If you were speaking about a world leader, you might say, “they have the weight of the world on their shoulders” instead of “world leaders have a lot to deal with. ” We know that a world leader does not, in fact carry a weight of 6.6 sextillion tons of the Earth’s physical weight. But using that phrase communicates just how difficult it is to carry the burdens of global leadership.

11.4.4: Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a stylistic choice to represent sound within words and can be used as an attention-getting device in your speech.

Learning Objective

Indicate when and how onomatopoeia should be used in speech

Key Points

• Words like “meow,” “boom,” “bleep” and “boing” each represent the sound they make. These are each examples of onomatopoeia.
• Onomatopoeia, because of its jarring nature, often acts as a great way to emphasize something.
• Consider using onomatopoeia strategically and sparingly to make a bold or memorable statement.

Key Term

onomatopoeia

A word that sounds like what it represents, such as “gurgle” or “hiss.”

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a word that imitates a sound.

The word “Slam.”

Onomatopoeia: What Is It?

Have you ever read an old Batman comic and seen action bubbles with words like “Boff! ” “Pow! ” and “Boom!”? These are all examples of onomatopoeia.

From the Greek, onomatopoeia is a combination of the words “I make” and “sound. ” At its most basic, onomatopoeia are words that represent the sounds they make. Whether it’s the woof of a dog or the wubwubwub of dub step, onomatopoeia captures that sound within a representational word. Many of these words have become a part of everyday language and you may not even realize you’re using onomatopoeia in the first place.

Why Use It?

Onomatopoeia can be a very effective and catchy stylistic choice to use in your speech. Since these words are representations of sound, they can often be jarring. They’re a great way to grab an audience’s attention when used in the right way. Some onomatopoeia are even part of common phrases and quotes, adding to the relatability of your speech:

• Pow! Right in the kisser.
• If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it must be a duck.
• Snap, crackle, pop! (Rice Krispies jingle)

How to Use Onomatopoeia

The key to using onomatopoeia is to use it sparingly. Because onomatopoeia can be jarring, you don’t want your speech to be so punctuated by it that it makes it hard to listen to as an audience member. Consider using onomatopoeia when you need to make a bold or memorable point with your audience, perhaps as even a form of verbal punctuation. Onomatopoeia, like other styles of descriptive language, can help paint a visual – and aural – picture in the minds of your audience.

11.4.5: Personification

Personification can refer to speaking as another person or thing, or assigning human qualities to a non-human animal, object or idea.

Learning Objective

Identify the the different uses of personification in public speaking

Key Points

• Personification adds a colorful way to describe complex ideas to your audience.
• When using prosopopoeia, your audience will project their reaction on that which you’re trying to be and not on you as the speaker.
• Speaking as another person or idea is helpful to deflect negative response to the words you’re saying, but because you’re saying them as someone else, the audience is less likely to blame you for your words.

Key Terms

prosopopoeia

A prosopopoeia (Greek: π) is a rhetorical device in which a speaker or writer communicates to the audience by speaking as another person or object.

personification

A figure of speech, prosopopeia, in which an inanimate object or an abstraction is given human qualities.

Personification

Anthropomorphism is a form of personification. It associates human qualities and characteristics with non-human animals. 

A picture of Donald Duck.

Personification: What Is It?

Personification is a rhetorical device where a speaker speaks as another person or object (in a style known as prosopopoeia). It can also refer to the assignment of human characteristics and qualities to non-human animals, inanimate objects or abstract ideas. A simple way to think about personification is to consider the characters of some of your favorite Saturday morning cartoons: Donald Duck, Mickey and Minnie Mouse, or the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. As a form of hyperbole, we know these animals can’t speak English, go on madcap adventures in Disney World or use martial arts to right crime. But their personification makes them more human to us.

Why Use It?

In addition to being an artful form of speaking, personification can be used to more vividly make your point. Personification is a way of using storytelling to craft your speech by personifying complex or abstract ideas or thoughts. Your audience may better understand a complex subject when you give it human qualities and characteristics.

How to Use Personification

There are two ways to approach personification: to speak as another person to make a point or to personify an inanimate object, animal or abstract thought. In the former case, when you speak as someone or something else, your audience will project their reaction on that which you’re trying to be and not on you as the speaker. This is helpful to deflect negative response to the words you’re saying, but because you’re saying them as someone else, the audience is less likely to blame you for your words.

An example of speaking as something else is when President Abraham Lincoln constructs a mock debate between Republicans and the South, emerging as the spokesman for the Republican party:

“You charge that we stir up insurrections among your slaves. We deny it; and what is your proof? Harper’s Ferry! John Brown!! John Brown was no Republican; and you have failed to implicate a single Republican in his Harper’s Ferry enterprise. If any member of our party is guilty in that matter, you know it or you do not know it. If you do know it, you are inexcusable for not designating the man and proving the fact. If you do not know it, you are inexcusable for asserting it, and especially for persisting in the assertion after you have tried and failed to make the proof. You need to be told that persisting in a charge which one does not know to be true, is simply malicious slander. ” – Abraham Lincoln, Cooper Union Address

In the second instance, assigning human qualities to an object or idea also helps deflect negativity while bolstering the strength of your words and ideas. A particularly stark example of this could be seen at the 2012 Republican National Convention, when actor Clint Eastwood physically addressed and spoke to an empty chair representing President Barack Obama as if he were sitting there:

“So I — so I’ve got Mr. Obama sitting here. And he’s — I was going to ask him a couple of questions. So, Mr. President, how do you handle promises that you have made when you were running for election, and how do you handle them? ” – Clint Eastwood, Republican National Convention speech

11.4.6: Repetition and Parallelism

Repetition and parallelism can add clarity and dramatic punch to your speech.

Learning Objective

Distinguish between the use of repetition and parallelism in speech

Key Points

• Repetition should be used sparingly and strategically. Pick your most influential statement and weave its repetition throughout your speech.
• Use parallelism to use similar constructs to approach the same sentence. Add balance and break up repetition by adding parallelism to further emphasize your ideas.
• You may decide to use repetition and parallelism to drive home the most important takeaway messages from your speech.

Key Terms

Parallelism

the juxtaposition of two or more identical or equivalent syntactic constructions, especially those expressing the same sentiment with slight modifications, introduced for rhetorical effect.

repetition

the act or an instance of repeating or being repeated.

Repetition and Parallelism

Repetition and parallelism of ideas and concepts can really emphasize the point of a speech to an audience, while establishing balance in the argument.

A picture of a man and woman talking while sitting next to a statue.

Repetition & Parallelism: What Are They?

When you repeat similar ideas or themes in your speech, you are using repetition as a stylistic choice. Similarly, parallelism is a structured use of repetition by using identical or equivalent constructions in corresponding clauses to express the same sentiment.

Why Use Them?

Parallelism is an especially effective technique to provide structure, order, and balance in your speech, in addition to clarifying your argument. Repetition also helps emphasize your point to your directly to your audience. The audience is more likely to remember something that has been repeated. Parallelism works the same way but without rote repetition of words or ideas and instead constructs them from similar examples.

How to Use Repetition and Parallelism

Repetition is fine in small doses, but you don’t want to sound like a broken record. Consider using repetition of the same phrase or words only for those statements that you would like to be the most memorable and influential and weave them throughout your speech. You can also use them in close proximity for an especially dramatic effect. For example:

“Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end,we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender. ” – Winston Churchill

Parallelism is a very effective way to break up your use of repetition by laying out many different ways of expressing the same thought or idea. See below how parallelism was used in these two speakers:

“Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. ” – John F. Kennedy

“Today’s students can put dope in their veins or hope in their brains. If they can conceive it and believe it, they can achieve it. They must know it is not their aptitude but their attitude that will determine their altitude. ” – Reverend Jesse Jackson

11.4.7: Simile and Metaphor

Simile and metaphor are creative ways of making comparisons in your speech.

Learning Objective

Differentiate between the use of a simile and metaphor in public speaking

Key Points

• Similes and metaphors are composed of two parts: a tenor and a vehicle. A tenor is the subject that is being compared or described; the vehicle is the comparison used to describe the subject.
• Both similes and metaphors use tenors and vehicles, the only difference being that similes connect the two with the words “like” or “as” while a metaphor simply states a tenor is a vehicle.
• Similes and metaphors are wonderful ways to bring your creativity and style to your speech.

Key Terms

simile

A figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another, in the case of English generally using like or as.

metaphor

The use of a word or phrase to refer to something that it isn’t, invoking a direct similarity between the word or phrase used and the thing described, but without the words like or as, which would imply a simile.

Metaphor

Using descriptive language adds variety and creativity to your speech.

Simile & Metaphor: What Are They?

Similes and metaphors are forms of descriptive language that make comparisons. Similes make their comparisons by using the words “like” or “as” while metaphors directly state what something is.

Why Use Them?

Simile and metaphor are artful ways of speaking to make a comparison. With simile and metaphor, you can paint pictures in the minds of your audience members. They make for more engaging and compelling ways of describing something, which means your audience is more likely to pay attention to what you have to say. Additionally, you have the chance to make bold stylistic choices in your speech through the construction of creative similes and metaphors.

How to Use Simile and Metaphor

Simile and metaphor are constructed of two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. The tenor refers to the subject itself, that which is being described. The vehicle is the comparison or description used to describe the subject. With simile, the tenor and vehicle are linked by the words “like” or “as” whereas metaphor simply states the tenor is the vehicle.

“All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances. ” William Shakespeare, As You Like It

In the example above, the tenor of Shakespeare’s line is the world. The vehicle of this metaphor is a stage, with an additional tenor of men and women represented by actors as a vehicle.

As you craft your speech, look for sections that could use vivd imagery; how do you want to make your words stand out in the minds of your audience? What picture do you want to paint with your words?

11.5: Understanding Bias in Language

11.5.1: Gender Bias

Gender bias exists because of the social construction and language of gender itself; recognize it and try to avoid it when speaking.

Learning Objective

Explain how gendered communication creates bias in public speaking

Key Points

• Gender is the social construction and definition of what it means to be man, woman, masculine or feminine.
• Gender expression and expectations of how gender should be expressed vary by culture.
• Men and women have different expectations and perceptions of each other and thus will receive speakers of opposing genders differently. Additionally, gender bias still exists – for both speaker and audience – when speakers who may share the same gender as their audience.

Key Terms

bias

An inclination towards something; predisposition, partiality, prejudice, preference, predilection.

gender

The sociocultural phenomenon of dividing people into the categories of “male” and “female,” with each having associated clothing, roles, stereotypes, etc.

Gender Bias in Public Speaking

Gender Bias 

The late Benazir Bhutto, former Prime Minister of Pakistan, faced gender and cultural bias in her two brief terms as a world leader.

Understanding Gender

Before we can start talking about gender bias, it’s first helpful to understand the concept of gender. Gender is not necessarily indicative of the sex organs with which we’re born. When you’re talking about the biological classification of “male” and “female” you’re referring to sex, not gender.

Gender is the social construction of a person’s sex. Gender refers to the social definition and cultural expectations of what it means to be “man” or “woman. ” Additionally, some people may identify with a gender different from their sex, often identifying instead as “transgendered. “

Gender is not something with which you are born; instead it is taught, learned and understood through social interaction and experience.

What is Gendered Communication?

At its heart, gender is learned by, defined and taught to us through language and communication. Gendered communication is often culturally constructed as well, meaning that what is considered masculine or feminine in one culture may not hold true in another. How people express their gender often relies on the cultural constructs of the society in which they live or identify. The same is said of how people expect certain gender roles to be expressed by others.

Recognizing and Avoiding Gender Bias in Public Speaking

Just as you want to be cognizant and aware of the cultural biases that exist between both you and your audience, you’ll want to be equally aware of how gender bias may factor into your speech. Know that when a woman gets up to speak in front of a group of men, she is instantly received differently than her male counterpart. In certain cultural contexts, men may be dismissive of a female speaker. Many times, female speakers have to adapt gendered mannerisms, language and stance of men in order to validate their authority as speaker.

It’s not exactly a cut and dry vice-versa situation, either. Women may be at ease with a female speaker, but they may also be more attentive to a male speaker, given that many cultures teach women to be attentive (subservient in the extreme) to men.

Taking a step back and considering what gender bias you bring to the table, as well as what gender biases your audience might have of you is an important step in eliminating or at least addressing gender bias in your speech.

11.5.2: Culture Bias

We all carry cultural biases, intentional or otherwise; try to find and address cultural bias within your speech.

Learning Objective

Describe how cultural bias can impact the delivery, rhetorical content and reception of a speech

Key Points

• Cultural bias exists when you try to navigate the experiences of others through the framework of your personal compass of cultural experience.
• Both you and your audience bring cultural bias to your speech: how you perceive and communicate with them and how they perceive and receive your words.
• Cultural bias can impact mannerism, speech, and gesture as well as the rhetorical compenents of your speech.
• Try to avoid cultural bias if you can and if you can’t, at least acknowledge it. Read your speech from a distanced perspective while considering the cultural context both you and your audience bring to the speech and how it will be received. This will only make your argument more robust.

Key Terms

Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is a form of global communication. It is used to describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally appear within an organization made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate, and perceive the world around them.

bias

An inclination towards something; predisposition, partiality, prejudice, preference, predilection.

Example

• In many Western cultures, we associate eye contact with assertiveness, attention, and honesty. However, in many cultures, including Asian, Latino, Native American and Middle Eastern, looking someone in the eye is actually a sign of disrespect. With regard to public speaking, looking at your audience is an integral part of delivering your speech. If your cultural context dictates that such eye contact is disrespectful, you may feel awkward about standing up in front of a crowd. Alternatively, if your audience falls into this context, know that your eye contact could be seen as intimidating or disrespectful.

Cultural Bias in Public Speaking

Understanding Intercultural Communication

Cultural Biases

To be effective speakers, we must recognize, acknowledge, and move beyond cultural biases.

Chinese Vice Premier Wang Qishan holds an autographed basketball given to him by President Obama. He and President Obama are talking as Chinese State Councilor Dai Bingguo looks on.

In a world of seven billion people, author David J. Smith reduced the world down to just 100 inhabitants. Of those 100, Smith breaks the world down into the following locales and languages:

• 61 are from Asia
• 13 are from Africa
• 12 are from Europe
• 8 are from South and Central America
• 5 are from the United States and Canada
• 1 is from Oceania
• 22 speak a Chinese dialect (18 speak Mandarin)
• 9 speak English
• 8 speak Hindi
• 7 speak Spanish
• 4 speak Arabic
• 4 speak Bengali
• 3 speak Portuguese
• 3 speak Russian

When reduced to such simple terms, Smith’s “global village” illustrates the wide swath of diversity among the people of our planet. How we communicated with one another in spite of and in support of our diverse backgrounds is at the heart of intercultural communication.

Our unique cultural backgrounds can be the proving ground for commonality. Unfortunately, more often than not our cultural backgrounds serve as reminders of the ways in which we differ from one another and that our bias can serve as barriers to communication.

What is Bias?

Bias is the state at which we all exist; that is, a non-neutral state of inclination, predilection, and prejudice. By the sheer virtue of differences in human experience, we each harbor bias in some way because we’re all bringing something a little different to the table.

What is Cultural Bias?

Cultural bias exists when you try to navigate the experiences of others through the framework of your personal compass of cultural experience. Your cultural experience inherently makes you biased against disimilar cultural experiences to your own. Remember, bias doesn’t necessarily mean exclusion, so bias can mean a preference for one culture over another. This cultural bias may exist in the form of affinity towards one culture or cultural experience over another or complete detachment from one cultural experience over another.

How Cultural Bias Impacts Your Speech

Cultural bias exists in two forms when speaking in public. There’s the cultural bias you bring to the podium. The other exists in the minds of your audience, as they bring cultural biases with them to the auditorium. Both can impact your speech.

This dissonance between these biases can affect the ways your audience receives you as a speaker, in both trustworthiness and reliability as subject matter expert. Additionally, your cultural bias may impact your mannerisms and speaking patterns as you deliver your speech.

From a rhetorical perspective, your cultural bias may impact the strength and comprehensiveness of your argument. If your cultural bias only allows you to see things in a certain cultural context, there may be parts of your argument that aren’t fully developed simply because you don’t have the cultural context to even realize that part of your argument was not fully formed.

To overcome cultural bias, take a step back from your speech. Consider the following questions as you attempt to recognize and address cultural bias in your speech:

• What cultural context does your audience bring to your speech?
• What is the race, ethnicity, nationality, and heritage of your audience?
• What language barriers may exist?
• What cultural context do you bring to the table?
• What cultural biases might your audience have about you as speaker?
• What is the cultural context of both your argument and supporting evidence?